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TRAVELS  AND  RESEAKCHES 


IS 


CHALDJA    AND    SUSIANA; 

WITH  AN   ACCOUNT  OF  EXCAVATIOlJb  ,AT 

WARKA,  THE  "ERECH"  OF  JSIMROD, 

AND 

SHUSH,   "SHUSHAN    THE    PALACE"  OF  ESTHER, 
IN  1849-52, 


UNDES    TUS     OBDEBS     OF 


ilAJOR-GENERAL  SIR  W.  F.  WILLIAMS  OF  KAR8,  BART.,  K.C.B.,  M.P., 
AND  ALSO  OF  THE  ASSYRIAN  EXCAVATION  FUND  IN  1853^. 


BT 

WILLIAM  KENNETT  LOFTUS,  F.G.S. 


"  Why  dost  thou  build  the  hall,  son  of  the  winged  days  ?— Thon  lookest  from  thy  tower  to-day  :  yet  a  few 
years,  and  the  blast  of  the  desert  comes  ;  it  bowls  in  thy  empty  court." — Ossian. 


NEW  YORK: 
ROBERT    CARTER    &   BROTHERS, 

630    BROADW  AY. 
1857. 


I]S70 


CARPENTI^ 


TO 

MAJOR-GENERAL  SIR  WILLIAM  FENWICK  WILLIAMS, 

OF  KAES,   BART.,   K.C.B.,    M.P.,    ETC., 

%\n   !P^0lttm^   is   Inscribtir, 

DT  ADMIRATION  OF  HIS  BRILLIANT  ACHIEVEMENTS, 
AND 

m    GRATEFUL    REMEMBRANCE    OF    FOUR    HAPPY    TEARS 

PASSED  UNDER  HIS  COMMAND 

UPON  THE  TURCO-PERSIAN  FRONTIER. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  pages  are  due  to  researches  in  that 
remote,  and  but  partially  explored  region,  which, 
from  our  childhood,  we  have  been  led  to  regard  as 
the  cradle  of  the  human  race. 

The  matter  they  contain  is  the  result  of  two 
visits  to  the  countries  in  question :  first,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Turco-Persian  Frontier  Commis- 
sion in  1849-52,  under  the  orders  of  Colonel,  now 
Major-General  Sir  W.  F.  Williams,  Bart.,  of  Kars; 
and  secondly,  in  conduct  of  the  Expedition  sent 
out  by  the  Assyrian  Excavation  Fund,  at  the  end 
of  the  year  1853. 

On  returning  to  England  in  the  middle  of  last 
year,  I  hoped  that  the  Committee  of  the  above 
Society  would  have  published  in  extensor  and  in 


VI  PREFACE. 


another  fonn,  the  fruits  of  its  investigations  in 
Chaldsea  and  Assyria ;  but,  this  plan  having  been 
abandoned,  I  am  induced  to  embody  the  records 
of  some  portion  of  m.y  journeys  and  researches  in 
the  following  pages. 

Although  this  volume  does  not  chronicle  the 
discovery  of  sculptured  palaces,  such  as  the  sister- 
land  of  Assyria  has  yielded,  yet  it  comprises 
accounts  of  cities  existing  centuries  before  the 
greatness  of  Nineveh  rose  to  astonish  the  Eastern 
world,  and  of  sites  containing  the  funereal  remains 
and  relics  of  primseval  races.  With  the  more 
important  of  those  great  necropolis-cities  I  hope 
to  make  the  reader  familiar. 

In  my  account  of  Warka,  I  have,  for  the  sake  of 
brevity,  combined  the  results  of  my  three  visits ; 
and,  since  the  modern  Sheah  custom  of  burial,  to 
a  certain  extent,  corresponds  with  that  which  pre- 
vailed at  the  great  Chaldsean  cemeteries,  I  have 
introduced,  in  the  early  part  of  the  work,  a  de- 
scription of  the  celebrated  Persian  shrines  and 
cemeteries  at  Meshed  'All  and  Kerbella. 

Although  the  ruins  of  Babylon  have  been 
repeatedly  described,  I  have  made  a  brief  allusion 
to  them,  and  mentioned  the  most  recent  discoveries 
made  there,  because  a  work  on  Chaldaea  would  be 


PREFACE.  Tli 

necessarily  imperfect  without  some  reference  to, 
or  description  of,  its  great  capital.  In  doing  this, 
I  have  touched  upon  some  points  which  have  not 
hitherto  been  noticed. 

The  discoveries  made  at  Shush,  during  the 
progress  of  the  Frontier  Commission,  are  equally 
interesting  in  a  biblical,  as  in  an  historical  sense, 
for  they  identify,  beyond  reach  of  cavil,  the  exact 
position  of  "Shushan  the  palace,"  where  the  events 
recorded  in  the  book  of  Esther  took  place,  and 
settle  many  difficult  questions  connected  with  the 
topography  of  Susa,  and  the  geography  of  the 
Greek  campaigns  in  Persia,  under  Alexander  the 
Great  and  his  successors. 

In  the  course  of  the  work,  I  have  had  repeated 
occasion  to  refer  to  the  labours,  and  quote  the 
opinions  of  others ;  in  doing  so,  I  trust  that  I  have 
accorded  to  each  his  due  share  in  Chaldsean 
research. 

Since  there  appears  to  be  no  golden  rule  for  the 
orthography  of  Oriental  names — at  any  rate,  as 
each  writer  on  Eastern  subjects  adopts  his  own 
method  of  spelling,  I  have  chosen  one  which, 
while  it  approximates  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
native  pronunciation,  agrees  hkewise  with  the 
written  orthography.     In  carrying  this  out,  I  am 


VUl  PREFACE. 


deeply  indebted  to  Mr  Redliouse  for  his  valuable 
corrections;  and,  although  many  well-known  names 
appear  here  in  somewhat  different  guise  from  that 
which  they  usually  wear,  I  conceive  that  it  is 
better  to  risk  the  charge  of  pedantry  than  to  per- 
petuate errors,  I  am,  nevertheless,  fully  aware 
that  there  are  several  inaccuracies  in  this  respect, 
because  the  late  severe  illness  of  Mr  Redhouse 
prevented  my  asking  his  aid  until  some  of  the 
early  sheets  had  passed  through  the  press.  These 
it  is  proposed  to  amend,  if  another  edition  of  the 
work  be  required.  If,  however,  the  accented 
vowels  be  attended  to,  the  reader  will  approach 
very  nearly  to  the  native  pronunciation.  The  a 
is  equivalent  to  the  French  a:  the  e  to  the  French 
e;  i  corresponds  to  the  sound  of  ee;  u  to  that  of 
00 ;  and  the  guttural  aspirate  is  represented  in 
such  words  as  ^  Mi  and  Miiscid. 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure  here  to  record  my 
sincere  obligations  to  others  of  my  friends  who 
have  aided  me  with  their  advice  and  corrections 
while  the  work  was  in  the  press;  more  especially  to 
the  Rev.  Dr  Hamilton,  Mr  J.  F.  Nicholson,  Mr 
Radford,  Mr  Birch,  Mr  Yaux,  and  Mr  Boutcher. 
To  the  last-named  gentleman  I  am  likewise  in- 
debted for  the  careful  copies  on  wood  of  his  own 


PREFACE.  IX 

original  drawings,  made  on  the  spot  for  the 
Assyrian  Excavation  Society,  and  also  of  those 
(now  in  the  British  Museum)  made  by  the  friend 
and  companion  of  my  first  journey,  Mr  H.  A. 
Churchill. 

I  here  likewise  take  the  opportunity  of  acknow- 
ledging the  aid  and  encouragement  afforded  to  me 
on  the  field  of  my  researches.  To  General 
Williams  I  am  in  an  especial  manner  indebted  for 
the  facilities  which,  as  British  Commissioner,  he 
invariably  granted  to  me  in  carrying  out  such 
plans  as  were  advantageous  to  the  success  of  my 
labours.  During  the  more  recent  Expedition  on 
behalf  of  the  Assyrian  Excavation  Fund,  my 
eflforts  were  materiall}^  aided  by  the  position 
assigned  me  by  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  as  an 
Attache  of  our  Embassy  at  Constantinople  during 
the  continuance  of  the  Expedition,  for  which  I 
return  my  grateful  acknowledgments.  My  thanks 
are  also  due  to  his  Excellency  Lord  Stratford  de 
RedclifFe,  the  first  patron  of  Assyrian  research, 
who,  amidst  other  and  most  onerous  duties,  apphed 
to  the  Porte  for,  and  obtained,  new  firmans  for 
excavation.  And,  lastly,  to  Sir  Henry  Kawlinson 
I  desire  to  express  my  obligations  for  the  assist- 
ance rendered  me  in  his  then  official  capacity,  as 


PREFACE. 


Consul-General  at  Bagliclad,  by  liis  influence  with 

the  Turkish  authorities  and  native  Arab  chiefs. 

In  conchision,  I  hope  that  the  new  facts  and 

observations  which  I  am  enabled  to  lay  before  the 

reader  will  insure  me  some  consideration  for  my 

literary  inexperience. 

W.  K.  L. 


Norwood,  Decemher  1856. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

London  to  Baghdad — ^Turkish  and  Persian  Troubles — Colonel 
Williams  and  the  Frontier  Commissioners — Constantinoj^le 
— Mesopotamia — A  Flowery  Wilderness — The  City  of  H^- 
runu-'r-Keshid — Pestilence — ISTedjib  and  Abdl  Pashas    .  1 

CHAPTER  II. 
Baghdad  to  Babylon — The  Khan — Canals  and  Ancient  Fertility — 

Shapeless  Mounds — Fulfilment  of  Prophecy  .        .        .13 

CHAPTEE  m. 
HiUah— Tdhir  Bey  and  the  Turkish  Brass  Band— The  Oven 
Dance — Martial  Escort — Bridge  of  Boats — Birs  Nimrud — Its 
true  Theory — Sir  H.  Rawlinson's  Discoveries — The  Seven- 
coloured  Walls  of  the  Temple  of  the  Spheres — Chaldee 
Astronomy  .........       21 

CHAPTER  IV. 
View  from  Bits  Nimrud — Keffil — Ezekiel's  Tomb — Children  of 
the  Captivity 33 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Marshes  of  Babylon — Khuzeyl  Arabs — The  Euphrates,  and  its 
Canals — Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander — 
Shujah-ed-Dowla,  and  the  Indian  Canal        ....       38 


Kii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PAOX 

Kufa— A  Fiery  Ride— Nedjef,  and  the  Tomb  of  'All— The 
Ghydwr  in  the  Golden  ISIosque — Fanaticism  of  the  Sheahs — 
Far-travelled  Cofifins  and  Costly  Interments — How  the  Prime- 
Minister  got  a  Grave  at  a  Great  Bargain — Turkish  Torpor  and 
Cleanliness  versus  Persian  Dirt  and  Vivacity         ,         .         .       47 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Kerbella — The   Governor's  Dejeuner — The   "Martyr"    Huss6yn, 
and  his  Mosque — Siege  and  Massacre — ^The  "  Campo  Santo  " 
at  Kerbella — Oratory  of  'Ali — Magnificent  Sunrise — Eastern 
Ladies,  Mounted  and  on  Foot — The  Ferry    .         .         •         ,59 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Climate  of  Chaldsea — Christmas  in  Baghdad — Departure  for  the 
South — MubSrek's   Misadventure — The   Kyaya  of  HiUah — 
Bashi-Baztiks 72 

CHAPTER  IX. 
From  HUlah  into  the  Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The 
Surly  Sheikh,  and  his  Black  Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb 
and  Blue  PiU— New  Year  1850 80 

CHAPTER  X. 
The    Itlighty    Marsh  —  The    Reed-Palace  —  Shooting-match  — 
Niffar — Theory  on  the  Chaldeeans — Probable  Ethiopic  Origin 
— Niffar,  the   Primitive  Calneh,  and  Probable  Site   of  the 
Tower  of  Babel — Beni  Rechab,  the  Rechabites  of  Scripture  91 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Diwdniyya — Camp  of  Abdi  Pasha — Mulla  'Ali,  the  Merry  Ogre — 
Sheep-skin  Rafts — Statue-hunting — Hammrim — Solemn  Gran- 
deur of  Chaldsean  Ruins— The  Statue— Tel  Ede— Alarm  of 
the  Arabs — First  Impressions  of  Warka        .         .         •         .105 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Bedouins — MtibSrek  becomes   useful — Ruins  of  Mugeyer — Cy- 
linders— Chedorlaomer  ? — Belshazzar — The   Author    and   his 
Guides  put  to  flight  their  Turkish  Escort — Busrah — Arrival 
in  Persia  126 


CONTENTS.  Xui 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Plans  and  Preparations  for  Excavating  in  Warka — ^The  Party — 
Arrival  at  Suk-esh-Sheioukli — FaJiad,  Sheikh  of  the  Mun- 
tefik — Reception  Tent — Falcons — The  Letter  and  Escort       .     139 

CHAPTER  XrV. 
Winter — Camel-foals — Tuweyba  Tribe — Old  Friends — Harassing 
Labours — Dissatisfaction — Budda,  the  Grave-digger  and  Gold- 
finder —  Arab  Kindness — Warka  in  1854 — Difficulties — 
Scarcity  of  Food  and  Water — Patriarchal  Life  in  Abraham's 
Country — Misery  and  Rapacity — Sand-storms       .        .        .146 

CHAPTER  XV. 

«  The  Land  of  Shinar  "—Warka,  the  Ancient  "  Erech"— "  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees" — Scene  of  Desolation  and  Solitude — Enormous 
Extent  of  Ruins — The  'Bixwaviyja — Reed-mat  Structure         .     159 

CHAPTER  XVL 
"  Wuswas  "  Ruin — The  Earliest  Explorer — Rude  Ornamentation 
— Columnar  Architecture — Palm  Logs  the  Probable  Type — 
New  Light  on  the  External  Architecture  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians — Interior  of  Wuswas — The  Use  of  the  Arch  in 
Ancient  Mesopotamia — Search  for  Sculptures — The  Warrior 
in  Basalt 171 

CHAPTER  XVIL 
New   Styles   of  Decorative  Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab 
Aversion  to  Steady  Labour — Blood-Feud  between  the  Tuweyba 
and  El-Bej — The  Encounter  Frustrated — The  Feud  Healed — 
Diversions  after  the  Work  of  the  Day  •        ,         .         .187 

CHAPTER  XVIIL 

The  absence  of  Tombs  in  the  Mounds  of  Assyria — Their  abundance 
in  Chaldaea — Warka  a  vast  Cemetery — Clay  Sarcophagi  of 
various  forms — Top-shaped  Vase,  or  "  Babylonian  Urn" — 
Oval  Dish-cover  Shape — Slipper-shape — Difficulties  of  Re- 
moval— Excitement  of  the  Arabs — Gold  Ornaments — Coins — 
Vases — Terra-Cotta  Penates — Light-fingered  Arabs — The  Or- 
deal— Endurance  of  Pain — Earliest  Relics    .        .        .        .198 


XIV  CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER  XIX 

PIOI 

Bank-notes  of  Babylon — Relics  Injured  by  Fire — ^A  Fruitful 
Mound — Chamber  containing  Architectural  Ornaments — 
Origin  of  the  Saracenic  Style — Clay  Tablets  with  Seal  Im- 
pressions and  Greek  Names — Continuance  of  Cuneiform  until 
B.C.  200 — Himyaric  Tomb-stone — Conical  Mounds — Style  for 
Writing  Cuneiform — The  Shat-el-Nil — General  Results  of  the 
Excavations  at  Warka — Probable  Relics  still  Buried  there     ,     221 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Sinkara — Decamping — Ride  in  a  Sand-drift — ^The  Negro  Lion- 
slayer — ^A  Nocturnal  Visiter — Dull  uniformity  of  SinkSra — • 
The  Temple  of  Pharra — The  Dream  and  its  Fulfilment — 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  Nebonit  rebuilders  of  Temples — Another 
great  Necropolis — Tablets  and  their  Envelopes  of  Clay — 
Babylonian  Arithmetic — Pictorial  Records — Boxers  in  the 
Land  of  Shinar — The  Dog-devourer 240 

CHAPTER  XXL 
Treasures  found  at  Tel  Sifr — Juvenile  Footpads — Medina — Ytisuf 
and  his  Excavations  at  Tel  Sifr — Large  Collection  of  Curio- 
sities in  Copper — Private  Records,  B.C.  1500 — Female  Ex- 
cavators— ^The  Works  in  Chaldaea  abruptly  interrupted — 
Leave-taking  —  Grateful  Labourers  —  Embarkation  on  the 
Euphrates  —  River-craft  and  Amphibious  Arabs  —  "  The 
Mother  of  Mosquitoes" 263 

CHAPTER  XXIL 

Mohammerah. — ^Intense  Heat — Sickness — Legion  of  Blood-suckers 
— Colony  of  Alexander  the  Great — Charax — ^The  Delta  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates — Disputes  between  the  Turks  and  Per- 
sians— The  Cha'b  Arabs  and  their  Territories        .         .        .279 

CHAPTER  XXIIL 

Setting  out  for  Susa — The  Sulky  Ferryman — Coffee-cups  and  In- 
fidels— Ahwdz — ^A  False  Alarm — Shuster — Dilapidation  and 
Dirt — Shapur  and  the  Captive  Emperor  Valerian — Their 
Grand  Hydraulic  Works — Festivities  at  Shuster — Tea — The 
Forbidden  Beverage — Climate  of  Shuster — Failure  in  Diplo- 
macy  287 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

PAQB 

Departure  from  SMster — Change  of  Scenery  and  Animal  Life — 
Huge  Lizards — Botany — Geology  of  the  Persian  Steppes — 
Shdh-^b^d — Dizful — Subterranean  Conduits — Costume  of  the 
People— The  'Ali  Kethlr  Guide— The  Bridge  of  the  Biz— 
Encampment  at  Shush — A  Conflagration      ....     306 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
The  Tomb  of  the  Prophet  Daniel — Arabic  Traditions  regarding 
him — Benjamin  of  Tudela's  Account — Present  State  of  the 
Sepulchre — Spies  and  Persian  Fanaticism — Charge  of  Sacri- 
lege— Ferment  in  Dizful  and  the  Neighbourhood — The  'Alf 
Kethir  Arabs — An  accident  befals  the  Author — Compelled  to 
abandon  the  Mounds  of  Shush — Battle  between  the  'All  Kethir 
and  Bern  L^m — Suleyman  Khan  the  Christian  Governor  of  a 
Mohammedan  Province — Arrival  of  Colonel  Williams    .         .317 

CHAPTER  XXVL 
Early  History  of  Susa — ^From  the  days  of  Cyrus,  Susa  the  Win- 
ter-residence of  the  Persian  Kirgs — Ahasuerus  identical  with 
Xerxes — Lnmense  wealth  found  by  Alexander — Power  of 
Susa  declines — Its  Ruins  at  the  present  day — Abundance  of 
Wild  Beasts — Imposing  aspect  of  Susa  in  early  times    .         .     335 

CHAPTER  XXVIL 
Excavations  commenced  by  Colonel  Williams — A  Burglar — Con- 
viction and  Punishment — Gigantic  BeU-shaped  Bases  of 
Columns  discovered — A  Year's  Interruption — Proposed  Re- 
sumption in  1852 — Journey  under  the  Protection  of  the  Beni 
L^m — The  Seg-wend  Liirs — Hiring  of  Native  "Navvies'" — 
Opposition  of  the  Priesthood — The  Cholera  ascribed  to  the 
late  researches — The  New  Viceroy,  Khdnler  Mirza         .        .349 

CHAPTER  XXVin. 

The  Great  Palace  of  Darius  at  Susa — Columns  with  Double-bull 
Capitals — Trilingual  Inscriptions  of  Artaxerxcs  Mnemon — 
"  Court  of  the  Garden"  of  Esther — Columnar  and  Curtain 
Architectmre — Origin  of  the  Susian  and  Persepolitan  Style — 
Worship  of  Tanaitis  or  Venus .364 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

PAOl 

Hostility  and  Reconciliation — ^An  Arrival — The  Lur  Workmen — 
Insurrection  of  Seyids — Administration  of  Justice — Novel 
Method  of  Smoking — Colonel  Williams'  Horses  Stolen — An 
Arab  attack  Repelled — ^The  Haughty  Humbled — Besieged  by 
a  H^em 381 

CHAPTER  XXX. 
A  Long  Trench — Enamelled  Bricks — Masons'  Marks — ^A  Hoard 
of  Coins — Was  Susa  destroyed  by  Alexander? — Greek  In- 
scriptions— Pythagoras  and  the  Persian  Daric — Unexpected 
Visit  from  the  Guardian  of  the  Tomb — Inscriptions  and  other 
Early  Relics  on  the  Great  Mound — Alabaster  Vases  of  Xerxes 
— Egyptian  Cartouch — Mr  Birch's  Remarks  thereon — Sculp- 
tured Trough 396 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 
The  "  Black  Stone" — Its  Discovery  and  Adventures — Its  Con- 
nexion with  the  Welfare  of  Khuzistan — ^The  Plot  for  its  Re- 
moval Defeated — Investigations  among  the  Rivers  of  Susa — • 
Identification  of  the  "  Ulai,"  or  Eulseus  —  Bifurcation  of 
Modem  Rivers — Sheikh  Abdulla  Forgiven — Friendly  Parting 
between  the  Arabs  and  the  Frank 416 

Chkonological  Table 435 


ohaldtEa  and  susiam. 


CHAPTER  I. 


London  to  BagMcId — ^Turkish  and  Persian  Troubles — Colonel  Williams 
and  the  Frontier  Commissioners — Constantinople — Mesopotamia — 
A  Flowery  Wilderness — The  City  of  Harunu-'r-Eeshid — PcstUence 
— Nedjib  and  Abdi  Pashas. 

FoK  many  centuries  tlie  extensive  frontier  between  Turkey 
and  Persia  has  been  in  an  unsettled  state,  continually 
changing  its  limits  as  the  strength  or  influence  of 
either  Government  for  the  time  prevailed.  The  aflable 
Persian  naturally  regards  the  haughty  Osmanli  in  the 
light  of  an  intruder  upon  those  rich  plains  which  owned 
obedience  to  the  might  of  the  Kayanians  and  Sassanians 
in  the  days  of  Darab  and  Shapvir.  Eeligious  difference, 
moreover,  adds  to  the  political  animosity  of  the  two  great 
Mohammedan  powers.  The  phlegmatic  Turk  quietly 
smokes  his  chibilk,  swears  by  the  beard  of  Omar,  and 
thanks  the  omnipotent  Allah  for  all  the  blessings  he 
enjoys  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  ardent  follower  of  the 
martyred  'All  curses  the  orthodox  believer,  and  takes 
every  opportunity  to  insult  his  patron  saints.  It  may  be 
easily  conceived  that  such  political  and  religious  disagree- 
ments are  frequently  productive  of  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
bloodshed,  when  the  subjects  of  the  two  nations  come  into 

A 


CHALD^A  AND  SUSIANA. 


CHAPTER  I. 


London  to  Baghdad — ^Turkish  and  Persian  Troubles — Colonel  Williams 
and  the  Frontier  Commissioners — Constantinople — Mesopotamia — 
A  Flowery  Wilderness — The  City  of  Harunu-'r-Eeshid — Pestilence 
— Nedjib  and  Abdi  Pashas. 

For  many  centuries  tlie  extensive  frontier  between  Turkey 
and  Persia  has  been  in  an  unsettled  state,  continually 
changing  its  limits  as  the  strength  or  influence  of 
either  Government  for  the  time  prevailed.  The  affable 
Persian  naturally  regards  the  haughty  Osmanli  in  the 
light  of  an  intruder  upon  those  rich  plains  which  owned 
obedience  to  the  might  of  the  Kayanians  and  Sassanians 
in  the  days  of  Darab  and  Shapiir.  Religious  difference, 
moreover,  adds  to  the  political  animosity  of  the  two  great 
Mohammedan  powers.  The  phlegmatic  Turk  quietly 
smokes  his  chibilk,  swears  by  the  beard  of  Omar,  and 
thanks  the  omnipotent  Allah  for  all  the  blessings  he 
enjoys  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  ardent  follower  of  the 
martyred  'All  curses  the  orthodox  believer,  and  takes 
every  opportunity  to  insult  his  patron  saints.  It  may  be 
easily  conceived  that  such  political  and  religious  disagree- 
ments are  frecpiently  productive  of  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
bloodshed,  when  the  subjects  of  the  two  nations  come  into 

A 


2  THE  TURKO-PERSIAN  FRONTIER. 

close  contact.  To  add  to  the  difficulties  attending  any- 
proposed  reconciliation,  the  frontier  is  inhabited  by  various 
predatory  races,  who  regard  both  Turk  and  Persian  with 
equal  hatred,  and  who  are  only  too  happy  to  exercise  their 
plundering  propensities  by  incursions  into  either  territory. 
The  internal  divisions  and  jealousies  which  exist  among 
these  warlike  tribes  fortunately  prevent  them  from  com- 
bining, as  in  the  days  of  the  Parthians,  and  proving 
forniid.a.blj3  competitors  for  the  possession  of  Oriental 
dominion. 

.  ;;En  1839-40,  the  outbreak  of  serious  hostihties  between 
the"  Turkish  and  Persian  Governments,  arising  from  the 
causes  above  mentioned,  was  imminent,  and  likely,  in 
the  course  of  time,  to  endanger  the  tranquillity  of  the 
whole  world.  The  Cabinets  of  England  and  Russia,  in- 
fluenced doubtless  by  the  proximity  of  their  own  fron- 
tiers in  India  and  Georgia  to  the  regions  in  question,  and 
therefore  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  peace,  offered 
their  friendly  mediation  for  the  purpose  of  restraining 
the  belligerent  attitude  of  their  Mohammedan  neighbours. 
The  proposal  was  accepted,  and  commissioners  from  the 
four  powers  assembled  at  Erzerum,  who,  after  sitting  four 
years,  eventually  concluded  a  treaty,  one  article  of  which 
determined  that  representatives  should  be  sent  to  survey 
and  define  a  precise  line  of  boundary  which  might  not 
admit  of  futiu-e  dispute.  A  joint  commission  was  conse- 
quently appointed  to  carry  out  this  article.  The  British 
Government  selected  Colonel  Williams,  R.A.,"^''  to  this  ser- 
vice, his  previous  experience  during  the  protracted  con- 
ferences at  Erzerum  having  eminently  qualified  him  for 
the  task  now  assigned  him.  Colonel  Tcherikoff,  the 
Russian  commissioner,  although  not  a  party  to  the  treaty, 

*  Throughout  this  volume,  "  the  Hero  of  Kars "  is  alluded  to  under 
the  rank  he  held  at  the  time  as  Commissioner  for  the  deUmitation  of  the 
frontier. 


JOURNEY.  8 

was  equally  well  chosen  to  represent  the  Czar.  With 
these  officers  were  associated  Dervish  Pasha,  and  Mirza 
Jdfer  Khan,  the  commissioners  for  Turkey  and  Persia 
respectively.  Both  had  been  educated  in  Europe.  The 
former  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  learned 
savant  among  his  countrymen,  an  excellent  linguist  and 
chemist.  The  latter  soon  endeared  himself  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  various  parties  by  his  obliging  manners  and 
many  acts  of  kindness  and  attention. 

In  January  1849,  I  was  attached  by  Lord  Palmerston 
as  geologist  to  the  staff  of  Colonel  Williams,  and  directed 
to  lose  no  time  in  joining  my  chief.  On  reaching  Constan- 
tinople, and  presenting  myself,  according  to  instructions, 
to  Lord  Stratford  de  Pedcliffe  (then  Sir  Stratford  Canning), 
I  learned  that  Colonel  Williams  and  his  party  had  set  out 
from  thence  on  Christmas-day,  and  that  letters  had  been 
received,  dated  Siwas,  giving  a  deplorable  account  of  the 
state  of  the  weather  and  roads.  The  snow  had  fallen  to 
such  an  unprecedented  depth,  that  the  greatest  difficidty 
beset  their  journey,  and  at  several  places  it  was  found 
necessary,  after  many  days'  detention,  to  cut  roads  for  the 
passage  of  the  mules.  Under  these  circumstances,  the 
ambassador  detained  me  at  Constantinople  for  a  few 
weeks,  in  the  hope  that  the  return  of  spring  would  open 
the  communications  with  the  interior,  and  admit  of  my 
travelling  with  more  rapidity. 

On  the  7th  of  March  I  left  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 
After  the  usual  disagreeable  voyage  in  a  Black  Sea 
steamer,  and  a  cold  protracted  ride  across  the  Taurus, 
upon  which  the  snow  still  lay  uncomfortably  deep,  I  at 
length  reached  Diarbekir,  whence,  proceeding  down  the 
swollen  Timis  on  a  "  kelek,"  or  raft  of  skins,  I  arrived 
at  Mosul  on  the  5th  April,  and  there  joined  the  British 
commission. 

It  is  no  part  of  my  intention  to  detain  my  readers 


4  RAFT  ON  THE  TIGRIS. 

with  any  description  of  "  Nineveli,  that  great  city."  This 
has  been  ah-eady  done  by  another  and  more  able  pen  than 
mine.  Let  it  suffice  to  state,  that  we  beheld  those  asto- 
nishing "  heaps  built  by  men's  hands,"  and  admired  the 
perseverance  and  determination  of  our  countryman, 
Layard,  who,  from  these  shapeless  mounds,  exhumed  the 
wondrous  series  of  Assyrian  sculptures  which  now  forms 
such  an  important  feature  in  our  national  collection  of 
antiquities.  We  visited  the  four  great  mounds  of  Koy- 
unjuk,  Khorsabad,  K^ramles,  and  Nimriid,  marking  the 
angles  of  the  parallelogTam  which  is  supposed  to  enclose 
Nineveh.  The  time  spent  in  our  visit  consumed  exactly 
three  days,  and  it  is  probably  to  a  similar  circuit  of  its 
extent  that  the  passage  refers — "  Now  Nineveh  was  an 
exceeding  great  city  of  three  days'  journey."  '"" 

Baghdad  was  appointed  for  the  rendezvous  of  the  com- 
missioners ;  and,  as  the  Britisli  party  was  in  advance  of 
the  others,  we  floated  down  the  Tigris  on  rafts,  visiting 
at  our  leisure  all  those  points  of  interest  so  admirably 
described  by  Rich  in  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Residence  in 
Koordistan,"  and  subsequently  by  other  travellers.!  All 
beiQg  new  to  us,  we  fully  enjoyed  the  opportunity,  granted 
to  so  few.  We  rambled  over  the  desolate  mound  of 
Kal'a  Shergat,  the  ancient  capital  of  Assyria ;  we 
landed  at  Tekrit,  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  the 
romantic  Saladin,  the  Arab  hero  of  the  Crusades  ; .  and  we 
stood  on  the  plain  of  Dura,  recalling  to  mind  the  golden 
image  erected  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  unflinching 
faith  of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed-nego. 

*  Jonah  iii.  3.  This  expression  may,  however,  refer  to  the  thinly  in- 
habited district  between  the  river  Zab  on  the  south,  and  the  Khdbtir  on 
the  north,  which,  there  is  equal  reason  to  believe,  constituted  the  Nineveh 
of  Jonah's  mission.  The  journey  between  these  two  rivers  occupies  exactly 
three  days. 

t  Mr  Layard  gives  a  short  description  of  the  numerous  ancient  sites  be- 
tween Mosul  and  Bdghddd  in  his  "  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  4G-1,  et  scq^ 


SCENERY  ON  THE  TIGRIS.  6 

It  was  midspring.  Instead  of  the  arid  sands,  which 
the  word  "  desert "  implies  to  the  uninitiated  in  Meso- 
potamian  travel,  broad  plains  of  the  richest  verdure, 
enlivened  with  flowers  of  every  hue,  met  our  delighted 
gaze  on  either  side  of  the  noble  river.  Coleopterous 
insects  swarmed  upon  the  banks,  culling  the  sweets  of 
the  fleeting  vegetation.  The  cry  of  the  velvet-breasted 
francolin,  and  the  sand -grouse '"'  rushing  overhead  like  an 
irresistible  wind,  enticed  the  most  ardent  of  our  party  to 
land,  and  indulge  the  love  of  their  favourite  sport.  The 
result  was  not  unsuccessful,  and  little  trouble  was  expe- 
rienced in  providing  for  our  commissariat.  Now  and 
then  a  herd  of  wild  boars  was  discovered  among  the 
jungle,  or  observed  crossing  the  river  :  it  was  seldom  that 
they  escaped  unsaluted  by  a  volley  of  bullets,  with  more 
or  less  effect.  A  bend  of  the  stream  sometimes  brought 
us  suddenly  upon  a  large  Bedouin  encampment,  whence, 
on  observing  the  raft,  a  score  or  so  of  swarthy  Arab 
dames,  with  piercing  black  eyes  and  never-failing  rows  of 
the  whitest  teeth,  launched  forth  on  inflated  sheep  skins, 
and  paddled  out  to  meet  the  "  keleks."  They  bore  on 
their  heads  bowls  of  milk  or  delicious  lebben,t  which  they 
disposed  of  in  return  for  a  few  small  coins.  Althoiigh 
the  general  aspect  of  the  country  is  monotonous,  there 
is  always  something  to  amuse  the  traveller.  Never  did 
a  merrier  party  than  ours  float  down  the  Tigris  upon  a 
fragile  raft. 

o 

As  Baghdad  is  approached,  the  pendent  branches  of 
the  graceful  date-tree,  and  the  refreshing  green  of  the 
pomegranate,  with  its  bright  red  flowers,  become  more 
and  more  frequent  until,  many  miles  above  the  city,  the 
river  flows  through  one  continuous  grove.  At  length 
the  mosques  and  minarets   appear ;    the  goal   so   long 

*  The  Francolimis  vulgaris  and  Pterocles  arenarius  of  naturalists, 
t  Sour  clotted  milk — the  usual  Arab  beverage. 


6  BAGHDAD  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

wished-for  is  within  sight  at  last.     He  must  be  wholly- 
void  of  poetry  and  sentiment  in  whom  the  first  glimpse 


BSghd&i  and  the  Tigrifl. 

of  those  shining  domes  does  not  excite  at  least  some  spark 
of  emotion.  ^Vlio  is  there  that  does  not  recall  that  city 
where  the  lively  imagination  of  his  youthful  days  was  wont 
to  revel  amid  palaces  shining  in  splendour,  groups  of  blind 
beggars,  and  the  glories  of  the  khalifat  1  Who  is  there 
that  does  not  exclaim,  "  Is  this  the  Baghdad  of  Harilnu- 
'r-Reshid  and  the  '  Arabian  Nidits '  1 "  Alas  !  how  fallen ! 
The  blind  beggars,  it  is  true,  still  cluster  in  the  bazaars, 
and  are  met  at  every  corner  of  the  streets — the  misery 
and  filth  remain — but  where  are  the  palaces  and  the 
justice  of  the  Prince  of  the  Faithful  1  Few  relics  of  its 
quondam  magnificence  survive  to  remind  us  of  the  past. 
A  single  minaret,  a  couple  of  gateways,  the  wall  of  a 
college,  and  the  conical  tomb  of  the  beautiful  Zobeid, 
are  nearly  all  that  exist  of  Baghdad  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  its  greatness.  To  the  just  khalif  has  succeeded  a  race 
of  Turkish  pashas  having  no  interest  but  their  own 
aggrandizement — no  thought  but  how   they  can   most 


BAGHDAD  IN  DANGER.  7 

effectually  cheat  the  revenue,  enrich  themselves,  and  pass 
their  time  in  gross  debauchery.  Exaction  and  vice  are  the 
order  of  the  day.  Now  and  then  honourable  exceptions 
occur  to  this  general  rule,  but  these,  alas  !  are  few  and  far 
between.     But  of  this  more  anon. 

At  the  date  of  our  arrival  (May  5)  the  whole  popula- 
tion of  Baghdad  was  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  alarm  and 
apprehension.  In  consequence  of  the  rapid  melting  of 
the  snows  on  the  Kurdish  mountains,  and  the  enormous 
influx  of  water  from  the  Euphrates  through  the  Seglawiyya 
canal,  the  spring-rise  of  the  Tigris  had  attained  the  unpre- 
cedented height  of  22^  feet.  This  was  about  five  feet 
above  its  ordinary  level  during  the  highest  season,  even 
exceeding  the  great  rise  in  1831,  when  the  river  broke 
dowm  the  walls  and  destroyed  no  less  than  7000  dwellings 
during  a  single  night,  at  a  time  when  the  plague  was  com- 
mitting the  most  fearful  ravages  among  the  inhabitants. 

Nedjib  Pasha  had,  a  few  days  previously  to  our 
arrival,  summoned  the  population  en  masse  to  provide 
against  the  general  danger  by  raising  a  strong  high 
mound  completely  round  the  walls.  Mats  of  reeds  were 
placed  outside  to  bind  the  earth  compactly  together. 
The  water  was  thus  restrained  from  devastatino;  the  inte- 
rior  of  the  city — not  so  effectually,  however,  but  that  it 
filtered  through  the  fine  alluvial  soil,  and  stood  in  the 
serdabs,  or  cellars,  several  feet  in  depth.  It  had  reached 
within  two  feet  of  the  top  of  the  bank !  On  the  river 
side  the  houses  alone,  many  of  which  were  very  old  and 
frail,  prevented  the  ingress  of  the  flood.  It  was  a  critical 
juncture.  Men  were  stationed  night  and  day  to  watch 
the  barriers.  If  the  dam  or  any  of  the  foundations  had 
failed,  Baghdad  must  have  been  bodily  washed  away. 
Fortunately  the  pressure  was  withstood,  and  the  inunda- 
tion gradually  subsided.  The  country  on  all  sides  for 
miles  was  under  water,  so  that  there  was  no  possibility 


S  FEVER. 

of  proceeding  beyond  the  dyke,  except  in  the  boats  which 
were  established  as  ferries  to  keep  up  communication 
across  the  inundation.  The  city  was  for  the  time  an 
island  in  a  vast  inland  sea,  and  it  was  a  full  month 
before  the  inhabitants  could  ride  l^eyond  the  walls. 

As  the  summer  advanced,  the  malaria  arising  from  the 
evaporation  of  the  stagnant  water,  produced  such  an 
amount  of  fever  that  12,000  died  from  a  population  of 
about  70,000.  The  mortality  at  one  time  in  the  city 
reached  120  per  day — and  no  wonder,  when  a  person 
on  being  first  attacked  was  made  to  swallow  a  large 
quantity  of  the  juice  of  unripe  grajDCS  !  The  streets 
presented  a  shocking  spectacle  of  misery  and  suffering. 
The  sick  lay  in  every  direction — at  the  doors  of  houses, 
in  the  bazaars,  and  open  spaces ;  while  those  recently 
smitten  or  just  recovering  were  to  be  seen  staggering 
along  by  the  wall  sides  or  supported  with  sticks.  The 
gates  of  the  city  were  beset  with  biers — some  carried  on 
men's  shoulders  to  the  adjacent  cemeteries,  others  on  the 
backs  of  mules  to  the  sacred  shrines  of  Meshed  'All  and 
Kerbella. 

Although  our  quarters  were  fixed  in  a  small  summer- 
house  and  garden  at  Gherara,  an  hour's  distance  from  the 
city,  the  party  was  not  exempt  from  the  prevailing  epide- 
mic. All  in  turn  sufi'ered  from  fever,  and  at  times  there 
was  scarcely  a  servant,  out  of  our  large  suite,  able  to 
attend  upon  the  sick. 

In  consequence  of  the  delay  arising  from  the  Turkish 
commissioner's  non-arrival  at  the  appointed  time,  and 
from  certain  intricate  questions  which  required  a  reference 
to  the  home  Governments,  the  idea  w^as  abandoned  of  pro- 
ceeding to  the  frontier  until  the  summer  should  be  past. 
In  fact,  it  would  have  been  impossible  at  that  season  to  bear 
the  fearful  heat  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Even 
at  Baghdad,  during  the  day,  in  summer,  the  thermometer 


STATE  OF  THE  PA  SH ALIO.  9 

in  the  shade  often  rises  to  117°  Fahr. ;  and  frequently, 
when  the  wind  blows  from  the  south,  the  oppression  on 
the  senses  is  so  great  as  to  be  almost  unendurable.^'  The 
atmosphere  is,  however,  dry,  consequently  the  lassitude 
produced  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  experienced 
in  a  moist  climate,  like  that  on  the  sea-coast  of  India,  or 
of  the  Gulf.  The  heat  of  the  day  is  relieved  in  some 
measure  by  the  agreeable  temperature  of  the  night. 

Our  time  was  spent  in  making  preparations  for  the  ap- 
proaching campaign,  purchasing  horses  and  mules,  hiring 
servants,  and  obtaining  information  likely  to  be  useful 
in  the  course  of  oiu'  future  wanderings.  Much  of  our 
leisure  was  passed  in  the  agreeable  society  of  the  English 
residents  at  Baghdad  ;  and  our  sojourn  there  must  ever 
be  a  subject  of  pleasiug  reminiscence  to  the  members  of 
the  commission.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  attention  and 
hospitality  lavished  upon  us  by  the  consul-general.  Colonel 
(now  Sir  Henry)  Kawlinson,  Captain  Felix  Jones,  and  that 
small  party  of  Englishmen  whose  lot  it  was  to  make  the 
city  of  the  khaltfs  their  temporary  home. 

Baghdad  has  been  so  frequently  described,  that  it  forms 
no  part  of  my  intention  to  dwell  upon  it.  Other  and  less- 
visited  spots  invite  our  notice. 

The  state  of  the  pashalic  was  anything  but  satisfactory 
at  this  period.  The  cruel  exactions  and  oppressive  con- 
duct of  Nedjib  Pasha,  who  had  for  many  years  farmed 
the  revenues,  were  at  length  producing  their  inevitable 
fruits.  Eevolt  and  disaffection  reigned  everywhere 
among  his  subjects.  The  Beni  Lam  Arabs,  along  the 
lower  course  of  the  Tigris,  broke  out  into  open  rebellion, 
in  consequence  of  the  pasha  having  placed  that  tribe 
under  their  sworn  foes,  the  Montefik,  and  thro^^^l  into 

*  We  now  had  positive  evidence  of  the  statement  made  to  us  in  the 
mountains  concerning  Bdghddd,  that  birds  were  so  distressed  by  the  heat, 
as  to  sit  on  the  date-trees  with  their  mouths  open,  panting  for  fresh  air  ! 


10  NEDJIB  PASHA. 

prison  the  two  sons  of  their  sheikh,  Methkiir — his  hos- 
tages at  Baghdad — because  he  was  several  years  in  arrear 
of  his  customary  tribute.  They  seized  all  native  vessels 
laden  with  merchandise  passing  up  and  down  the  Tigris. 
All  communication  was  interrupted  between  Baghdad 
and  Busrah.  Caravans  were  detained,  and  the  hair  of 
the  camels  shorn,  it  being  the  proper  season  for  this  pro- 
cess. But  the  Arabs,  at  least,  had  some  sense  of  justice — 
the  cargoes  of  the  boats  and  the  camels'  hair  were  care- 
fully laid  aside,  to  be  honourably  restored  to  their  owners 
as  soon  as  matters  might  be  satisfactorily  arranged  ;  and 
British  property  was  respected. 

The  Kliuzeyl  Arabs,  inhabiting  the  marsh  lands  on  the 
west  of  the  Euphrates,  had  torn  down  the  dams  which 
restrained  the  "great  river"  within  its  proj)er  limits, 
and,  by  flooding  their  lands,  placed  themselves,  for  the 
time  being,  utterly  beyond  the  power  of  the  Tiu^kish 
Government, 

The  wild  Madan  tribes,  in  lower  Mesopotamia,  were  on 
the  point  of  foUo^Aing  the  example  of  their  neighbours  on 
either  side.  The  Bedouin  Arab,  taking  advantage  of  the 
general  confusion,  made  formidable  incursions  into  the 
pashalic,  and  plundered  all  parties  indiscriminately,  thus 
retaining  his  character  as  the  descendant  of  Ishmael,  and 
fulfilling  the  prediction,  that  "  his  hand  will  be  against 
every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him."^"  The 
prospects  of  the  Turks  in  their  southern  province  were 
dark  in  the  extreme.  Strong  representations  were,  how- 
ever, made  to  the  Porte,  and  resulted  in  the  dismissal 
of  Nedjib  Pasha,  the  instalment  of  the  Seraskier  Abdl 
Pasha  in  his  room,  and  the  abolition  of  the  system  of 
farming  the  revenue  by  the  substitution  of  a  regular  and 
liberal  salary  to  the  new  governor.  The  change  was  hailed 
with  delight  throughout  the  whole  province,  and  by  slow 
•  Genesis  xvi.  12. 


ABDf  PASHA.  11 

degrees  tranquillity  was  restored.  Nedjib  Pasha  shortly 
afterwards  took  his  departure  for  Constantinople,  leaving, 
it  was  said,  an  enormous  amount  of  private  debts  unpaid, 
but  taking  with  him  a  large  sum  of  money.  It  was  by 
his  orders  that  Sofiik,  the  celebrated  Shammar  Arab  chief, 
was  treacherously  slain,  while  under  safe-conduct ;  and  a 
host  of  other  serious  crimes  could  be  established  asjainst 
him.  Nevertheless,  Nedjib  Pasha  was  a  politic  governor  ; 
his  severities  being  frequently  well-timed,  insurrection 
was  prevented  in  the  bud.  It  was  only  by  an  unexpected 
chain  of  disorders,  which  he  had  not  the  power  to  queU, 
that  he  was  driven  from  his  lono;  dominion. 

Acting  in  direct  opposition  to  the  orders  of  his  superior, 
Abdi  Pasha  exhibited  so  much  tact  and  good  feeling  dur- 
ing his  mission  with  the  troops  into  the  Khuzeyl  territories, 
that  those  refractory  tribes  were  subdued  without  blood- 
shed, and  returned  to  their  allegiance.  This  circumstance 
had  such  weight  with  the  Porte,  that  he  was  considered 
the  fittest  person  to  succeed  Nedjib  Pasha.  He  was, 
however,  soon  found  wanting  in  those  qualities  which 
constitute  a  good  governor.  As  a  soldier,  he  had  per- 
formed his  part  admirably ;  but  no  sooner  did  he  assume 
the  civil  power  than  his  firmness  forsook  him.  Eesigning 
himself  to  the  luxury  of  his  new  position,  he  submitted 
to  be  guided  by  a  favourite  eunuch — a  sort  of  buffoon 
whose  gross  gestures  and  language  were  unendurable  by 
Europeans.  The  sagacious  Arabs  were  not  long  in  dis- 
covering that  they  might  act  almost  as  they  pleased  ;  and 
they  did  not  fail  soon  afterwards  to  take  advantage  of 
the  circumstance. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  at  the  end  of  summer  in 
the  pashalic  of  Baghdad,  when,  as  soon  as  the  intensity 
of  the  heat  permitted,  Colonel  Williams  determined  to 
reheve  the  monotony  and  lassitude  attendant  on  our  long 
detention  by  carrying  out  a  contemplated  trip  to  the 


12  CONTEMPLATED  JOURNEY. 

ruins  of  Babylon,  and  to  the  celebrated  Persian  shrines. 
Oiu-  arrangements  being  effected,  and  the  day  fixed  for 
departure,  we  quitted  our  wearisome  abode  at  Gherara, 
crossed  the  ferry  over  the  Tigris  by  starlight,  and  at 
Klian-i-Za'ad  were  joined  by  the  Russian  and  Turkish 
parties,  who  had  expressed  a  desire  to  accompany  us. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Baghdad  to  Babylon— Tlie  Khan— Canals  and  Ancient  Fertility— Shape- 
less ]\Iounds — Fulfilment  of  Prophecy. 

The  distance  between  Baglidad  and  tlie  niins  of  Babylon 
is  about  fifty  miles,  across  a  barren  desert  tract.  Large 
khans  occur  at  convenient  intervals,  to  provide  for  the 
security  of  travellers  against  the  ro\dng  Bedouins  who  at 
times  scour  the  surrounding  country.  A  description  of 
one  of  these  khans  will  suffice.  It  is  a  laro-e  and  substan- 
tial  square  building,  in  the  distance  resembling  a  fortress, 
being  surrounded  with  a  lofty  wall,  and  flanked  by  round 
towers  to  defend  the  inmates  in  case  of  attack.  Passing 
through  a  strong  gateway,  the  guest  enters  a  large  court, 
the  sides  of  which  are  divided  into  numerous  arched 
compartments,  open  in  front,  for  the  accommodation  of 
separate  parties,  and  for  the  reception  of  goods.  In  the 
centre  is  a  spacious  raised  platform,  used  for  sleeping  upon 
at  night,  or  for  the  devotions  of  the  faithful  during  the 
day.  Between  the  outer  wall  and  the  compartments  are 
wide-vaulted  arcades,  extending  round  the  entire  building, 
where  the  beasts  of  burden  are  placed.  Upon  the  roof  of 
the  arcades  is  an  excellent  terrace,  and,  over  the  gateway, 
an  elevated  tower  containinc;  two  rooms — one  of  which  is 
open  at  the  sides,  permitting  the  occupants  to  enjoy  every 
breath  of  air  that  passes  across  the  heated  plain.  The 
terrace  is  tolerably  clean  ;  but  the  court  and  stabling 
below  are  ankle  deep  in  chopped  straw  and  filth.     Each 


14  BABYLONIA. 

khan  is  supplied  with  a  well,  dug  through  the  gravel  into 
the  gypsiferous  deposits  beneath,  invarial)ly  affording  bad, 
brackish  water,  which  tastes,  as  one  of  our  party  aptly 
described  it,  like  a  solution  of  leather!  During  the  long 
summer,  these  khdns  are  frequently  crowded  to  excess  by 
pilgrims  from  Persia  on  their  way  to  the  shrines.  Each 
caravan  brings  with  it  numbers  of  felt-covered  coffins, 
containing  dead  bodies  sent  for  burial  in  the  sacred  ceme- 
teries. As  pilgrims,  coffins,  and  animals  are  shut  up 
together  all  night — or  all  day,  as  the  case  may  be — within 
the  khans,  it  may  be  conceived  that  the  atmosphere, 
impregnated  with  noxious  gases,  deals  death  and  destruc- 
tion around.  It  is  estimated  that,  in  healthy  seasons,  a 
fifth  of  the  travellers,  overcome  with  fever  and  other 
diseases,  find  their  graves  in  the  desert ;  while,  in  times 
of  cholera  and  epidemics,  the  average  is  much  larger  of 
those  who  fail  to  return  to  their  distant  homes. 

In  former  days  the  vast  plains  of  Babylonia  were 
nourished  by  a  complicated  system  of  canals  and  water- 
courses, which  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  country  like 
net- work.  The  wants  of  a  teeming  population  were  sup- 
plied by  a  rich  soil,  not  less  bountiful  than  that  on  the 
banks  of  the  Egyptian  Nile.  Like  islands,  rising  from  a 
golden  sea  of  waving  corn,  stood  frequent  groves  of  palms 
and  pleasant  gardens,  affording  to  the  idler  or  the  traveller 
their  grateful  and  highly-valued  shade.  Crowds  of  pas- 
sengers hurried  along  the  dusty  roads  to  and  from  the 
busy  city.  The  land  was  rich  in  corn  and  wine.  How 
changed  is  the  aspect  of  that  region  at  the  present  day ! 
Long;  lines  of  mounds,  it  is  true,  mark  the  courses  of 
those  main  arteries  which  formerly  diffi^ised  life  and  vege- 
tation alono;  their  banks,  but  their  channels  are  now 
bereft  of  moisture  and  choked  with  drifted  sand  ;  the 
smaller  offshoots  are  wholly  effaced.  "  A  drought  is  upon 
her  waters,"  says  the  prophet,  "  and  they  shaU  be  dried 


BABYLONIA.  15 

up,"*  All  that  remains  of  that  ancient  civilization — that 
"  glory  of  kingdoms,"  "  the  praise  of  the  whole  earth" — 
is  recognizal)le  in  the  numerous  mouldering  heaps  of  hrick 
and  rubbish  which  oversj^read  the  surface  of  the  plain. 
Instead  of  the  luxuriant  fields,  the  groves  and  gardens, 
nothing  now  meets  the  eye  but  an  arid  waste — the  dense 
population  of  former  times  is  vanished,  and  no  man 
dwells  there.  Instead  of  the  hum  of  many  voices,  silence 
reigns  profound,  except  when  a  few  passing  travellers  or 
roving  Arabs  flit  across  the  scene.  Destruction  has  swept 
the  land,  and  the  hand  of  man  been  made  the  instrument 
by  which  God  has  effected  his  punishment.t  But  for  the 
curse  upon  it,  there  is  no  physical  reason  why  it  should 
not  be  as  bountiful  and  thickly  inhabited  as  in  days  of 
yore  ;  a  little  care  and  labour  bestowed  on  the  ancient 
canals  would  again  restore  the  fertility  and  population 
which  it  originally  possessed.  It  would  require  no  immense 
expenditure  of  funds  to  clear  the  channels  of  the  loose 
sands,  which  have  accumulated  during  so  many  centuries, 
and  to  render  them  navigable  for  the  shallow  vessels  of 
the  country.  Such  a  work  of  supererogation  is  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  expected  from  the  existing  race  of  Turkish 
officials,  and  must  be  left  until  the  time  when  the  ciurse 
upon  it  shall  be  removed,  and  European  civilization,  with 
its  concomitant  advantages,  shall  penetrate  into  those 
distant  wilds.     May  that  time  soon  arrive ! 

I  have  been  led  into  this  digression  by  the  fact  that 
the  Ncihr  Malka,  one  of  the  four  main  arteries  which  sup- 

•  Jer,  1.  38. 

+  In  a  review  of  "  Johnston's  Physical  Geography,"  contained  in  the 
Edinburgh  Magazine  for  April  1849,  the  writer  has  well  remarked  that 
"  war  and  barrenness  of  soil  are  not  the  chief  obstacles  to  population. 
Insecurity  of  property  implied  in  tyrannical  governments  is  the  great 
depopulator.  Men  will  not  labour  when  they  cannot  be  certain  of  the 
fruits  of  their  labour ;  they  sink  into  lassitude,  indolence,  and  beggary." 
This  is  a  true  picture  of  the  present  state  of  Turkey,  and  more  especially 
appUcable  to  Babylonia,  which  has  passed  through  so  many  vicissitudes. 


16  BABYLON. 

plied  Babylonia  with  tlie  waters  of  the  Euphrates,  passed 
close  to  Khan-i-Za'ad,  and  is  still  traceable  by  a  slight 
depression.  It  should  be  remarked,  that  the  beds  of 
navigable  canals  are  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country,  while  those  of  the  secondary  or  irrigating  canals 
are  above  that  level.  This  arises  from  the  comparatively 
shallow  depth  of  the  latter,  and  the  rapid  accumulation 
of  matter  held  in  suspension  by  the  water,  which,  on 
deposition,  raises  their  channels  each  successive  year. 
Now  and  then  the  beds  of  canals  in  action  at  the  present 
day  are  cleaned  out,  and  the  deposit,  forming  embank- 
ments at  the  sides,  prevents  the  flooding  of  the  cultivated 
land. 

Between  Khan-i-Za'ad  and  the  little  village  of  Mohawil 
there  is  nothing  to  interest  the  traveller,  but  soon  after 
passing  the  date-trees  and  modern  canal  of  the  latter 
place,  a  small  mound  affords  from  its  summit  the  first 
glimpse  of  the  ruins  of  Bal^ylon.  Truly  said  the  prophet 
concerning  her,  "  Babylon  shall  become  heaps,  an  astonish- 
ment, and  an  hissing,  without  an  inhabitant."  '''  Unsightl}^ 
mounds  alone  remain  of  that  magnificence  which  Scrip- 
ture so  frequently  dilates  upon,  and  which  the  pages  of 
Herodotus  so  carefully  describe.  Who  can  recognise  in 
those  shapeless  piles,  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  time  and 
the  destructive  hand  of  man  during  twenty  centuries, 
any  of  its  former  grandeur  'i 

We  learn  from  Herodotust  that  the  great  city  was  built 
in  the  form  of  a  square,  each  side  of  which  was  defended 
by  an  enormous  wall,  measuring  120  stadia,  or  about 
15  miles  in  length,  and  furnished  with  twenty-five 
gates  of  brass  ;  the  interior  being  arranged  in  squares 
by  streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles.  The 
Euphrates  divided  the  city  into  two  parts,  which  were 
connected  by  a  bridge  of  immense  length  and  width. 

*  Jer.  li.  37.  t  Lib.  i.  c.  178,  et  seq. 


BABYLON.  .  17 

According  to  DIodorus  Siciilus,""'  a  palace  stood  at  eitlicr 
extremity  of  the  bridge  :  that  on  the  eastern  side  measur- 
ing 3f  miles  in  circumference — that  on  the  western  being 


*7l 


miles.  He  also  speaks  of  the  temple  of  Belus  on  the 
latter  side.  Herodotus,  however,  mentions  but  one  palace 
and  the  temple  of  Belus. 

The  ruins  at  present  existing  stand  upon  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  are  enclosed  within  an  irre- 
gular triangle  formed  by  two  lines  of  ramparts  and  the 
river,  the  area  being  about  eight  miles.  This  space  contains 
three  great  masses  of  building — the  high  pile  of  unbaked 
l)rickwork  called  byEicht  "Miljellibe,"  but  which  is  known 
to  the  Arabs  as  "  Babel ;"  the  building  denominated  the 
"  Kasr,"  or  palace  ;  and  a  lofty  mound  upon  which  stands- 
the  modern  tomb  of  Amram-ibn-'Ali.  Upon  the  western 
bank  of  the  Euphrates  are  a  few  traces  of  ruins,  but  none 
of  sufficient  importance  to  give  the  impression  of  a  palace. 
It  mil  therefore  be  seen  that  the  ancient  and  modern 
descriptions  of  Babylon  do  not  agree,  unless  we  are  to 
consider  the  mounds  within  the  triangular  space  above- 
mentioned  as  constituting  a  single  palace  and  its  offices. 
If  so,  where  are  we  to  look  for  the  walls  of  Babylon  fifteen 
miles  square  ?  It  has  been  suggested,  that,  by  regarding 
the  great  tower  of  the  BIrs  Nimriid  on  the  south,  and 
the  conical  mound  of  El  Heimar  on  the  east,  as  two 
corners  of  a  vast  square,  we  should  thus  get  over  the 
difficulty  ;  but  unfortunately  we  have  no  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  any  walls  around  the  square  thus  traced. 

There  are  various  causes  to  account  for  the  comjJete- 
disappearance  of  the  walls  and  so  much  of  the  buildings. 
Upwards  of  2300  years  ago,  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,^ 
caused  them  to  be  demolished  in  consequence  of  a  rebel- 
lion in  the  city,  thus  bringing  about  the  fulfilling  of  the 
prophecy — "  The  wall  of  Babylon  shall  fall ;"  "  her  walls  are 

*  Lib.  ii.  c.  8.     t  "  Memoir  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon."     %  Herod,  iii.  150. 

B 


18  BABYLON. 

thrown  down  ;"  "  the  broad  walls  ....  shall  be  utterly 
])roken.""'^  During  that  period,  likewise,  the  ruins  were 
used  as  a  never-failing  brick  field — city  after  city  was 
built  from  its  materials.  Ctesiphon,  Kilfa,  Kerbella, 
Hillah,  Baghdad,  and  numerous  other  places — them- 
r^elves  now  scarcely  to  be  recognized — derived  their  supply 
of  bricks  from  Babylon !  The  floods  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  rains  of  winter,  too,  have  exercised  their  share  in  l^ury- 
ino;  and  disintef>;ratino;  the  materials.  All  these  ao;encies 
at  work  have  combined  to  render  Babylon  a  byword 
and  a  reproach  among  nations.  Eich,  and,  but  recently, 
Fresnel  and  Layard,  endeavoured  by  excavation  to  recover 
some  information  from  the  existing  moimds,  but  they 
encountered  such  inextricable  confusion  that  they  gave 
up  their  several  attempts  in  despair. 

In  my  opinion — and  I  have  examined  the  ruins  on  four 
several  occasions — it  is  now  utterly  impossi])le  to  recog- 
nize one  single  point  in  them  as  the  remains  of  any  of 
those  sumptuous  palaces  described  by  the  early  historians. 
Eich,t  whose  account  and  measurements  are  models  of 
careful  examination,  has  misled  himself  and  others  by  his 
enthusiasm  in  endeavouring  to  identify  certain  of  the 
ruins  with  the  descriptions  of  Herodotus.  I  grant  that 
it  is  a  most  pleasing  subject  to  speculate  upon,  but  it  is 
perfectly  hopeless,  at  this  distance  of  time,  to  trace  out  any 
plan  of  the  ancient  city  as  it  existed  in  its  greatness  and 
glory  .J  It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  remarks  that 
any  doubt  exists  as  to  the  identity  of  the  ruins  in  ques- 
tion with  those  of  the  scriptural  Babylon.  There  cannot 
be  two  opinions  on  that  suliject.     Independently  of  the 

*  Jeremiah  li.  44,  58  ;  1.  15.  t  "JMemoir  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon." 
J  In  1854-55  a  minute  survey  of  Babylon  and  its  environs  was  made  at 
tlie  request  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  by  Captain  Jones,  I.N.,  assisted  by  Dr 
Hyslop  and  Mr  T.  K.  Lynch.  The  public  will  doubtless  ere  long  be  put  in 
possession  of  the  important  information  which,  it  is  said,  was  obtained 
during  the  progress  of  this  examination. 


LA  YARD  AT  BABYLON.  19 

fact  that  universal  tradition  points  to  tins  locality  as  the 
seat  of  the  Babylonian  capital,  no  other  site  can  be  so 
appropriately  determined  on. 

During  Mr  Layard's  excavations  at  Babylon  in  the 
Avinter  of  1850,  Babel,  the  northern  mound,  was  investi- 
gated;'"" but  he  failed  to  make  any  discovery  of  importance 
beneath  the  square  mass  of  unbaked  brickwork  except  a 
few  piers  and  walls  of  more  solid  structure.  According 
to  the  measurement  of  Rich,  it  is  nearly  200  yards  square, 
and  141  feet  high.  It  may  be  suggested  that  it  was  the 
basement  upon  which  stood  the  citadel.  From  its  summit 
is  obtained  the  best  view  of  the  other  ruins.  On  the  south 
is  the  large  mound  of  Miljelliba,  so  called  from  its  "  over- 
turned" condition.  The  fragment  of  ancient  brick 
masonry  called  the  Kasr,  which  remains  standing  on  its 
surface,  owes  its  preser^^ation  to  the  difficulty  experienced 
in  its  destruction.  The  bricks,  strongly  fixed  in  fine 
cement,  resist  all  attempts  to  separate  the  several  layers. 
Their  under  sides  are  generally  deeply  stamped  with  the 
legend  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Not  far  from  this  edifice  is 
the  well-known  block  of  basalt,  roughly  cut  to  represent 
a  lion  standing  over  a  prostrate  human  figiu:e.  This, 
together  with  a  fragment  of  frieze,  are  the  only  instances 
of  has  reliefs  hitherto  discovered  in  the  ruins.  The  last, 
discovered  by  Mr  Layard,  exhibits  two  figures  of  deities, 
with  head-dresses  resembling  those  peculiar  to  Persepolis 
and  Khorsabad. 

On  the  south  of  the  Miljellibe  is  the  moimd  of  Amnim, 
from  which  Mr  Layard  obtained  the  remarkable  series  of 
terr'a-cotta  bowls,  with  inscriptions  in  ancient  Chaldaean 
characters,  supposed  to  have  been  charms  used  by  the 
Jews  during  the  captivity  to  ward  off  the  Evil  One. 
These  are  among  the  most  interesting  relics  procured 
from  Babylon. 

•  *  Nineveh  find  Babylon,"  p.  504-& 


20  BABYLON. 

Various  ranges  of  smaller  mounds  fill  up  the  inter- 
vening space  to  the  eastern  angle  of  the  walls.  The 
pyramidal  mass  of  El  Heimar,  far  distant  in  the  same 
direction — and  the  still  more  extraordinary  pile  of  the 
Birs  Nimrud  in  the  south-west,  across  the  Euphrates — 
rise  from  the  surrounding  plain  like  two  mighty  tumidi 
designed  to  mark  the  end  of  departed  greatness.  Mid- 
way between  them,  the  river  Euphrates,  wending  her 
silent  course  towards  the  sea,  is  lost  amid  the  extensive 
date-groves  which  conceal  from  sight  the  little  Arab 
town  of  Hiilah.  All  else  around  is  a  blank  waste,  recall- 
ing the  words  of  Jeremiah  : — "  Her  cities  are  a  desolation, 
a  dry  land,  and  a  wilderness,  a  land  wherein  no  man 
dwelleth,  neither  doth  any  son  of  man  pass  thereby." '"" 

It  would  be  useless  here  to  enter  into  a  more  detailed 
description  of  the  niins,  because  the -works  of  Eich  and 
Layard  yield  all  the  information  which  is  known  on  the 
subject,  and  to  them  my  readers  must  be  referred. 

*  .Teremiah  U.  43 


CHAPTER  III. 

Hillah — Tdhir  Bey  and  the  Turkish  Brass  Band — The  Oven  Dance — 
Martial  ]<]scort — Bridge  of  Boats — Birs  Nimrud — Its  true  Theory — 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson's  Discoveries — The  Seven-coloured  Walls  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Spheres — Chaldee  Astronomy. 

The  camp  of  our  party  was  pitched  on  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  mounds,  near  the  village  of  Jumjiinui, 
where  we  Avere  joined  by  Tahir  Bey,  the  military  gover- 
nor of  Hillah,  one  of  the  very  few  men  in  Turkey  who 
have  devoted  their  time  to  study  the  profession  of  a 
soldier.  He  was  known  as  a  dashing  officer,  and  pos- 
sessed that  frankness  and  off-hand  manner  which  stamped 
the  correctness  of  the  character  he  had  obtained.  He  was 
a  general  favourite,  and  soon  made  himself  at  home 
with  us.  He  placed  a  guard  of  fifty  men  to  look  after 
our  safety  during  the  night  ;  and,  to  afiord  some 
amusement,  ordered  out  the  brass  band  of  the  garrison 
under  his  command,  which  at  intervals  enlivened  us  with 
selections  and  remarkable  variations  from  Bellini,  Doni- 
zetti, and  even  Strauss !  This,  as  may  be  imagined,  was 
not  quite  consonant  to  the  feelings  of  the  European  por- 
tion of  the  assembly,  who  would  infinitely  rather  have 
dispensed  with  such  frivolities,  and  have  indulged  in 
quiet  contemplation  on  the  extraordinary  scene  which 
we  had  that  day  for  the  first  time  beheld.  But,  as  there 
was  no  help  for  it,  we  were  obliged  to  conform  to  the 
feelings  of  the  majority,  and  to  respect  the  attentions 
which  Tahir  Bey  lavished  upon  us. 

At  such  times  as  the  band  ceased  its  somewhat  dubi- 


22  THE  DANCER. 

ous  melody,  one  of  those  never-failing  accompaniments 
of  Oriental  fetes — a  dancer — was  introduced  to  add  to 
tlie  amusement  of  the  evening.  He  proved  to  be  no 
ordinary  buffoon,  sucli  as  usually  exhibits  to  an  Eastern 
audience.  Hamza  of  Hillah  was  celebrated  far  and  near 
for  his  grace  and  modesty.  He  might  have  been  about 
eighteen  years  old,  and  was  not  only  dressed,  but  ap- 
peared like  a  girl,  tall  and  slightly  built.  His  costume  re- 
sembled that  of  a  Spanish  dancer,  consisting  of  a  tiglit  vest 
with  loose  sleeves  of  red  silk,  and  a  skirt  of  the  same 
material,  which  reached  to  below  the  knees,  and  was 
ornamented  with  alternate  rings  or  flounces  of  red,  blue, 
and  yellow,  edged  with  Persian  shawl.  This  skirt  was 
called  "  tennilr,"  from  its  resemblance  to  an  Arab  "  oven." 
On  his  head  Avas  a  fez,  with  long,  fidl  blue  tassel ;  and 
from  his  neck  and  breast  hung  numerous  chains  and  large 
medals  of  silver — presents,  doubtless,  from  his  ardent 
admirers.  The  backs  of  his  hands  were  adorned  with 
silver  studs,  and  his  fingers  with  rings,  of  which  he  made 
the  most  dexterous  use  as  an  accompaniment  to  the 
sound  of  the  tomtom.  Oriental  dances  are  usually  gross 
and  indecent  in  the  extreme  :  it  was  therefore  with  no 
little  surprise  and  pleasure  that  we  remarked  Hamza's 
movements  were  entirely  free  from  this  objection,  and 
might  have  been  witnessed  by  the  most  fastidious.  His 
grace  woidd  indeed  have  amused,  if  not  charmed,  any 
audience,  and,  if  exhibited  in  England,  he  would  soon 
have  made  his  fortune.  There  not  being  space  sufiicient 
in  the  reception-tent  for  the  full  display  of  Hamza's 
powers,  an  adjournment  took  place  to  the  open  air.  A 
large  circle  was  formed  around  a  torch  adapted  for  the 
occasion.  It  was  a  round  iron  grate,  raised  upon  a  pole 
to  the  height  of  six  feet  from  the  ground.  The  fire  was 
fed  with  the  boughs  and  leaves  of  date-trees,  Avliich  cast 
a  strong  lurid  light  upon  the  spectators. 


THE  "TENNtJR"  DANCE.  23 

The  people  of  Hillali,  hearing  of  our  arrival,  and  judg- 
ing that  there  was  something  to  be  seen,  collected  in 
considerable  numbers  into  a  motley  group.  There  was 
the  old  Turk,  chibuk  in  hcand,  with  his  venerable  white 
beard,  well-wound  tiu'ban,  and  scrupulously  clean  person 
and  apparel — the  dirty  Aral),  with  his  gay  keff  ieh,  striped 
abba,  and  constant  companion,  the  long  spear — the 
nearly  naked  water-carrier,  bearing  a  huge  bullock's  sldn 
upon  his  broad  back,  and  announcing  his  ever-welcome 
presence  by  the  sound  of  little  brass  bells — here  and  there 
a  stray  Persian,  in  pointed  lambskin  cap  and  long  blue 
robes,  as  worn  ages  past  by  his  forefathers — and  lastly, 
our  own  attendants,  exhibiting  every  variety  of  race, 
caste,  and  costume  between  Malta  and  Baohdad — a  com- 
plete  Babel  among  themselves-  Turkish  sentinels  at  re- 
gidar  intervals,  musket  in  hand,  kept  the  ring. 

Hamza  now  stepped  into  the  circle  and  commenced 
the  performance  of  what  was  esteemed  his  most  wonder- 
ful feat — the  favourite  of  the  Turks.  He  begau,  dervish- 
like, to  move  slowly  round  upon  one  spot,  gradually 
increasing  his  speed  as  the  music  quickened,  until  at  length 
he  spun  round  with  amazing  velocity.  He  then  proceeded 
to  partially  divest  himself  of  his  numerous  ornaments  and 
garments,  but  each  article  was  taken  olf  so  slowly  and 
carefully,  and  the  speed  with  which  he  turned  was  so 
great,  that,  when  he  rapidly  passed  it  into  the  hands  of  a 
person  stationed  to  receive  it,  the  movement  was  scarcely 
perceptible.  Each  portion  of  his  dress  thus  disappeared 
until  only  his  under-clothing  remained.  Throwing  a 
shawl  over  his  person,  he  now  actually  increased  his  speed 
to  a  fearful  velocity,  until  he  appeared  as  though  fixed  on 
a  pivot.  He  then  dressed  ;  and,  after  half  an  hour  of  this 
violent  exertion,  suddenly  ceasing  liis  gyrations,  he  made 
two  or  three  elegant  movements,  salaamed  the  strangers, 
and  retired  amidst  "bouts  of  applause.     Although  not 


24  PROCESSION  INTO  HILLAH. 

exhibiting  the  grace  of  his  dance  in  the  tent,  as  an 
example  of  bodily  endurance  it  surpassed  anything  of  the 
sort  I  had  ever  before  witnessed. 

This  exhibition  over,  and  the  din  of  the  tomtom  ceased, 
a  profound  stillness  took  possession  of  the  camp,  varied 
only  by  the  regular  tread  and  challenge  of  the  sentinel. 
It  was  long,  however,  before  I  closed  my  eyes.  The 
excitement  of  visiting  a  spot  so  remarkable  in  the  history 
of  the  human  race  was  such,  that  I  lay  awake  for  a  length 
of  time,  recalling  to  my  mind  all  the  wonderful  events 
which  had  befallen  "  the  golden  city,"  and  the  astounding 
fulfilment  of  those  prophecies  which  refer  in  so  remark- 
able a  manner  to  its  present  crumbling  condition.  No 
one  who  reflects  seriously  on  such  a  subject  and  on  such 
a  scene  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  truth  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

The  whole  camp  was  early  astir  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, and  we  proceeded  in  great  state  towards  Hillah, 
the  little  capital  of  the  surrounding  Arab  district.  The 
procession  was  led  by  the  mounted  escort  which  had 
accompanied  us  from  Baghdad,  and  by  the  detachment  of 
infantry  sent  from  the  to^Ti  overnight  by  Tahir  Bey.  I 
must  give  them  the  credit  of  being  by  far  the  cleanest, 
most  orderly,  and  soldier-like  fellows  I  had  seen  in 
Turkey — vastly  superior  to  the  ill-clad  wretches  who 
hung  about  the  streets  of  Stambul  before  the  war.  Their 
dress  and  accoutrements  were  good  and  clean,  their 
muskets  and  long  bayonets  shining  as  brightly  as  any 
rigid,  disciplinarian  could  desire.  The  only  thing  which 
detracted  from  their  appearance,  and  rendered  them  some- 
what uncouth  to  look  upon,  was,  that  their  European-cut 
white  trousers  were  inconveniently  small  to  contain  the 
Oriental  baggy  drawers  within.  Next  in  order  were  three 
led  horses  of  the  pasha,  covered  with  black  trappings, 
and  ornamented  with  plates  and  beads  of  bright  silver, 


BRIDGE  OF  HILLAH.  25 

having  much  the  appearance  of  palls  appertaining  to  a 
funeral  procession.  Behind  these  were  two  kettle-drum- 
mers, who  kept  up  an  incessant  tomtomming  until  the 
ears  ached  with  the  intolerable  din — these,  of  course, 
immediately  preceded  the  three  commissioners  and  a 
motley  group  of  officers,  in  such  costumes  as  each  thought 
most  suitable  for  affording  shelter  against  the  increasing 
heat  of  the  rising  sun.  In  the  background  came  servants 
of  all  classes,  exhibiting  as  picturesque  an  array  as  can  be 
well  conceived.  Long  strings  of  mules  with  the  baggage 
closed  the  procession. 

Hillah  is  approached  from  the  Baghdad  road,  by  a  nar- 
row avenue,  passing  through  the  extensive  date-gardens 
which  border  on  the  river.  The  trampling  of  so  many  feet 
enveloped  us  in  a  cloud  of  the  finest  and  most  penetrating- 
dust,  which  all  were  compelled  to  endure  while  almost 
suffocated  by  it.  At  the  suburbs  we  were  received  by  our 
friend  the  governor,  who  had  preceded  us,  by  the  band,  and 
the  bulk  of  the  garrison.  Although  the  dust  was  very  an- 
noying, it  was  impossible  not  to  enjoy  a  scene  so  strange 
and  new.  The  sun  was  just  beginning  to  shed  his  warming- 
influence  upon  the  beautifid  yellow  clusters  of  ripening- 
dates,  which  hung  like  so  many  bunches  of  pure  gold 
collected  round  the  ends  of  the  tall  stems.  The  luxuriant 
tufts  of  feathery  branches,  and  their  elegantly  pendent 
form,  appeared  to  spring  from  the  trees,  as  if  solely  in- 
tended to  relieve  the  monotonous  aspect  of  an  Arab  desert, 
or  to  prevent  the  fruit  under  their  bounteous  shade  from 
being  scorched  and  dried  up  under  the  vertical  sun. 

A  few  dilapidated  houses  and  a  small  bazaar,  chiefly 
stocked  with  water-melons  and  cucumbers,  guard  the 
eastern  approach  to  the  bridge  of  Hillah.  The  crossing 
this  bridge — if  it  could  deserve  the  title — produced  con- 
siderable wavering  and  consternation  among  the  horse- 
men ;  many  of  whom,  it  was  observed,  wisely  dismounted, 


26  JEWS  OF  THE  CAPTIVITY. 

lest  a  false  step  or  other  accident  sliould  precipitate  both 
horse  and  rider  into  the  rapid  Euphrates.  The  bridge  was 
one  of  boats — infirm  and  old — covered,  like  Noah's  ark, 
"  without  with  pitch"  derived  from  the  bitumen  springs 
of  Hit.  From  boat  to  boat  was  laid  down  a  roadway 
of  date  timber ;  but  so  full  of  holes  was  it,  that  a  broad- 
stepped  ladder  would  have  answered  the  same  purpose. 
The  oscillation  produced  by  the  passage  of  so  many 
horsemen,  the  plunging  and  kicking  of  the  animals,  and 
the  state  of  the  bridge  itself,  rendered  it  a  matter  of  no 
small  difficulty  to  reach  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  in 
safety.  As  if  for  the  sake  of  amusing  themselves  at  our 
expense,  and  to  create  as  much  confusion  as  possible,  the 
authorities  in  the  town  placed  two  large  guns  in  such  a 
position  as  to  enfilade  both  sides  of  the  bridge,  and  fired 
a  succession  of  salutes — sufficient  to  have  done  honour  to 
three  sultans,  instead  of  three  commissioners !  Ha"ST.ng 
escaped  all  the  dangers  consequent  on  the  passage  of  the 
Euphrates,  we  assembled  at  the  seray,  where  pipes  and 
coffee  were  duly  provided,  and  a  few  minutes'  rest  was 
allowed  us  to  collect  our  scattered  thoughts.  The  seray  is 
said  to  have  been  a  palace  of  the  khalifs  ;  and  certainly, 
if  its  dilapidated  condition  be  any  warrant  for  this  report, 
its  antiquity  is  undoubted.  There  is  nothing  remarkable 
about  the  town  of  Hillah,  except  that,  from  its  situation 
on  the  Euphrates,  it  is  somewhat  more  picturesque  than 
most  Arab  towns.  The  bazaars  are  extensive,  and  exhibit 
the  usual  amount  of  blindness,  poverty,  and  filth.  If 
there  be  one  thing  more  than  another  which  strikes  the 
visitor  to  Hdlah,  it  is  the  large  number  of  Jews  who 
inhabit  the  place,  and  secure  a  livelihood  by  collecting 
and  selling  antiques  from  the  neighboming  mounds. 
They  are  tlie  degraded  and  persecuted  remnant  of  the  ten 
thousand,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  off"  from  Jerusa- 
lem, still  hovering  around  the  scene  of  the  captivity ! 


BfRS  NIMRtJD.  27 

It  has  been  often  suggested,  that,  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  changes  in  the  coarse  of  the  Euphrates,  the 
western  portion  of  Babyk)n  was  gradually  wa.shed  away, 
and  that  its  place  is  now  occupied  by  the  alluvial  plain. 
Mr  Layard  is  of  this  opinion/'  But  this  mode  of  account- 
ing for  the  entire  disappearance  of  such  large  edifices  as 
we  know,  from  the  historical  accounts,  to  have  existed 
on  the  west  of  the  great  river,  is  highly  unsatisfactory. 
Upon  the  same  supposition,  we  should  expect  the  eastern 
ruins  to  have  likewise  disappeared.  The  opposition  of- 
fered by  such  a  massive  pile  as  Babel  or  Miijellibe  could 
not  be  wholly  overcome,  even  during  a  lapse  of  centuries. 
The  result  of  the  river's  flowing  at  its  base  would  simply 
be  the  disintegration  of  a  very  small  portion  of  its  mass. 
The  surface  of  the  ground  between  Hillah  and  the  Birs 
Nimriid,  a  distance  of  six  miles,  shews  the  remains  of 
old  canals  derived  from  near  the  present  course  of  the 
Euphrates,  which  is  quite  opposed  to  this  theory.  It  is 
more  probable,  in  my  opinion,  that  the  river  has  not  much 
altered  its  channel,  but  that  the  western  division  of  the 
ruins,  being  more  accessible  to  brick-hunters,  was  com- 
pletely demolished.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  escaped 
general  observation,  that  there  are  mounds  within  the  date- 
oToves  of  Hillah  itself  indicatino-  the  existence  of  older 
foundations.  These  may  eventually  prove  to  be  a  por- 
tion of  the  lost  western  half  of  ancient  Babylon. 

There  are  few  ruins  in  the  world  which  have  excited 
such  general  interest  and  speculation  regarding  their  object 
and  origin  as  the  vitrified  brick  edifice  which  crowns  the 
summit  of  Birs  Nimrud.  The  old  Jewish  traveller,  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,  in  the  twelfth  century,  regarded  it  with 
devout  reverence  as  part  of  the  identical  tower  of  Babel 
destroyed  by  fire  when  the  Lord  scattered  man  abroad 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth  as  a  punishment  for  his  auda- 

•  "  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  492-3. 


28      BfRS  NIMROD "  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SEVEN  SPHERES." 

city.  Many  authors  consider  it  to  be  the  great  temple  of 
Belus,  descrihed  by  Herodotus  as  having  been  partially 
destroyed  by  Darius,  about  500  B.C.,  and  afterwards  plun- 
dered by  his  son  Xerxes.  Others,  again,  were  inclined  to 
look  on  it  as  an  observatory  erected  by  the  Chaldsean 
priests  for  astronomical  purposes. 

It  is,  however,  to  the  sagacity  and  learning  of  Sir 
Henry  Eawlinson  that  we  are  indebted  for  a  correct 
determination  of  this  remarkable  edifice.  The  excavations 
conducted  there  under  his  directions,  in  1854,  confirm 
the  correctness  of  the  observations  made  by  Rich,  Ker 
Porter,  and  Buckingham,  as  to  the  existence  of  several 
stages  Avhich  they  conceived  to  be  visible  under  the 
accumulation  of  fallen  bricks.  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson 
ascertained  that  the  structure  consisted  of  six  distinct 
platforms  or  terraces.  Each  terrace  was  about  20  feet  in 
height,  and  42  feet  less  horizontally  than  the  one  below 
it.  The  whole  were  so  arrano-ed  as  to  constitute  an 
oblique  pyramid — the  terraces  in  front  being  30  feet  in 
depth,  while  those  behind  were  12  feet,  and  at  the  sides  21 
feet  each.  Upon  the  sixth  story  stands  the  vitrified  mass, 
concerning  which  such  discussion  has  arisen,  and  which, 
it  is  now  suggested,  was  the  sanctum  of  the  temple. 
Built  into  the  corners  of  the  stories  were  cylinders  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  designating  the  whole  structure,  "  the 
Stages  of  the  Seven  Spheres  of  Borsippa."  Each  story  was 
dedicated  to  a  planet,  and  stained  with  the  colour  pecu- 
liarly attributed  to  it  in  the  works  of  the  Sabsean  astro- 
logers, and  traditionally  handed  down  to  us  from  the 
Chaldj?eans.  The  lowest  stage  was  coloured  black,  in 
honour  of  Saturn ;  the  second  orange,  for  Jupiter ;  the 
third  red,  for  Mars  ;  the  fourth  j^ellow,  for  the  Sun  ;  the 
fifth  green,  for  Venus  ;  the  sixth  blue,  for  Mercury  ;  and 
the  temple  was  probably  white,  for  the  Moon ! 

It  may  not  perhaps  prove  imacceptable  to  my  readers 


CYLINDER  OF  "  NABU-KUDURI-UZUR."  29 

if  I  here  give  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's  translation  from  the 
cuneiform  record  upon  the  cylinders,  which  is  to  the  fol- 
lowing effect : — 

"  I  am  Nahu-kuduri-uzur,  King  of  Babylon,  the  estab- 
lished governor,  he  who  pays  homage  to  Merodach, 
adorer  of  the  Gods,  glorifier  of  Nabu,  the  supreme  chief, 
he  who  cultivates  worship  in  honour  of  the  Great  Gods, 
the  subduer  of  the  disobedient  man,  repaii-er  of  the  temples 
of  Bit-Shaggeth  and  Bit-Tzida,  the  eldest  son  of  Nabu- 
pal-uzur.  King  of  Babylon.  Behold  now  Merodach,  my 
great  Lord,  has  established  men  of  strength  and  has  urged 
me  to  repair  his  buildings.  Nabu,  the  guardian  over  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  has  committed  to  my  hands  the 
sceptre  of  royalty  therefore.  Bit-Shaggeth,  the  palace  of 
the  heavens  and  the  earth  for  Merodach  the  supreme  chief 
of  the  Gods,  and  Bit  Kua,  the  shrine  of  his  divinity,  and 
adorned  with  shining  gold,  I  have  appointed  them.  Bit- 
Tzida  also  I  have  firmly  built.  With  silver  and  gold  and 
a  facing  of  stone  ;  with  wood  of  fir,  and  plane,  and  pine  I 
have  completed  it.  The  building  named  the  Planisphere, 
which  was  the  wonder  of  Babylon,  I  have  made  and 
finished.  With  bricks  enriched  with  lapis  lazuli  I  have 
exalted  its  head.  Behold  now  the  l3uilding  named  the 
Stages  of  the  Seven  Spheres,  whicli  was  the  wonder  of 
Borsippa,  had  been  built  by  a  former  king  He  had  com- 
pleted 42  cubits  (of  height),  but  he  did  not  finish  its  head. 
From  the  lapse  of  time  it  had  become  ruined  ;  they  had 
not  taken  care  of  the  exits  of  the  waters,  so  the  rain  and 
wet  had  penetrated  into  the  brickwork.  The  casiug  of 
burnt  brick  had  bulged  out,  and  the  terraces  of  crude 
brick  lay  scattered  in  heaps ;  then  Merodach,  my  great 
Lord,  inclined  my  heart  to  repair  the  building.  I  did  not 
change  its  site,  nor  did  I  destroy  its  foundation  platform, 
but  in  a  fortunate  month,  and  upon  an  auspicious  day,  I 
undertook  the  building  of  the  crude  brick  terraces,  and  the 


30  BORSIPPA. 

burnt  brick  casing  of  the  temple.  T  strengthened  its 
foundation,  and  I  phxced  a  titular  record  on  the  part  I  had 
rebuilt.  I  set  my  hand  to  build  it  up  and  to  exalt  its 
summit.  As  it  had  been  in  ancient  times,  so  I  built  up 
its  structure  ;  as  it  had  been  in  former  days,  thus  I  exalted 
its  head.  Nabu,  the  strengthener  of  his  children,  he  who 
ministers  to  the  Gods,  and  Merodach,  the  supporter  of 
sovereignty,  may  they  cause  this  my  work  to  be  estab- 
lished for  ever  ;  may  it  last  through  the  seven  ages,  and 
may  the  stability  of  my  throne  and  the  antiquity  of  my 
empire,  secure  against  strangers,  and  triimiphant  over 
many  foes,  continue  to  the  end  of  time.  Under  the 
guardianship  of  the  Eegent  who  presides  over  the  spheres 
of  heaven  and  the  earth,  may  the  length  of  my  days  pass 
on  in  due  course.  I  invoke  Merodach,  the  king  of  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  that  this  my  work  may  be  pre- 
served for  me  under  thy  care  in  honour  and  respect. 
May  Nabu-kuduri-uzur,  the  royal  architect,  remain  under 
thy  protection." 

The  record  further  states,  that  "  Nabu-kuduri-uzur's"  re- 
storation took  place  504  years  after  the  original  foundation 
by  Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  who  dates  as  far  back  as  1100  B.C. 

Antiquarians  had  long  previously  pronounced  the 
Blrs  Nimrud  to  be  Borsippa,  the  city  to  which  Alex- 
ander the  Great  retired  when  warned  by  the  Chaldsean 
priests  not  to  enter  Babylon  from  the  east.  Every  brick 
hitherto  obtained  from  the  ruin  is  impressed  with  the 
legend  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  attempted  identification 
with  the  tower  of  Babel  therefore  falls  to  the  ground, 
unless  it  shall  be  hereafter  shewn  that  the  temple  restored 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  was  erected  upon  the  site  of  a  stiU 
earlier  structure.'^'' 

*  NelDuchadnezzar  was  a  great  builder  and  restorer.  His  records  are  dis- 
covered in  every  part  of  Babylonia,  and  abound  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Babylon — corroborating  to  the  fullest  extent  the  words  of  Scripture:  "Is 
not  this  great  Babylon  that  I' have  built  ?"  &c.— Dan.  iv.  30. 


VITRIFICATION  OF  BRICKS,  31 

The  peculiarities  displayed  in  the  architecture  of  the 
Birs  Nimriid  agree  so  faithfully  with  the  Greek  descrip- 
tions of  the  temple  of  Belus  at  Babylon,  that  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  the  two  buildings  having  been  erected  on 
the  same  general  plan,  and  that,  when  we  look  upon  the 
existing  edifice,  we  regard  a  fac-simile  of  the  one  which  is 
now  destroyed. 

As  a  discovery  in  art  or  science  always  leads  to  further 
knowdedge  and  information,  so  the  seven  coloured  stories 
of  the  Temple  of  the  Spheres  enable  us  fully  to  compre- 
hend the  hitherto  dubious  account  of  the  seven  coloured 
walls  of  the  city  Ecbatana  in  Media,  described  by 
Herodotus/"''  As  regards  the  mode  in  which  the  colours  of 
the  bricks  in  each  stage  were  produced,  it  may  be  sug- 
gested that  chemical  ingredients  were  added  to  the  clay 
before  the  bricks  were  burned  in  the  fm-nace.  It  is  more 
difiicult  to  explain  the  cause  of  the  vitrification  of  the 
upper  building.  My  late  talented  friend,  Captain  New- 
bold,  assistant-resident  in  the  Deccan,  originated  an 
idea  when  we  examined  the  Birs  Nimriid  in  company, 
which  is,  I  believe,  now  beginning  to  be  adopted,  that, 
in  order  to  render  their  edifices  more  durable,  the  Ba- 
bylonians submitted  them,  when  erected,  to  the  heat  of 
a  fiu-nace.  This  will  account  for  the  remarkable  condi- 
tion of  the  brickwork  on  the  summit  of  the  Birs  Nimriid, 
which  has  undoubtedly  been  subjected  to  the  agency  of 
fire.  No  wonder  that  the  early  explorers,  carried  away 
by  their  feelings  of  reverence,  should  have  ascribed  the 
vitrified  and  molten  aspect  of  the  ruins  to  the  avenging 
fire  of  heaven,  instead  of  to  a  more  natural  agency.  It 
is  worthy  of  notice,  that  in  several  places  where  vitrified 
bricks  occur  in  Babylonia,  they  are  associated  with  a 
tradition  that  Nimrod  there  threw  the  patriarch  Abra- 

*  Lib.  i.  98. 


32  ASTRONOMYo 

ham  into  a  furnace.  There  appear,  therefore,  to  be  some 
grounds  for  Captain  Newbold's  suggestion. 

The  Birs  Nimrud,  then,  was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  where  "  the  wise  men  of  the  Chaldees," 
prompted  by  their  adoration  of  the  countless  orbs,  were 
naturally  led  to  the  study  of  astronomy.  The  Chaldseans 
were  the  first  people  who  reduced  their  observations  to  a 
regular  system.  On  the  authority  of  Berosus,'''  it  is  re- 
corded, that  when  Alexander  took  Babylon,  Callisthenes 
forwarded  to  his  relative  Aristotle  in  Greece  a  catalogiie  of 
eclipses  which  had  been  observed  at  Babylon  during  the 
pre\4ous  1 903  years.  Ptolemy  refers  to  eclipses  in  the  year 
720  B.C.,  which  were  derived  from  a  Chaldsean  source.  It  is 
to  those  early  astronomers  we  are  indebted  for  the  zodiac 
and  the  duodecimal  division  of  the  day. 

The  expansive  plains  of  Babylonia  possess  such  natural 
advantages  for  the  study  of  astronomy,  that  we  cannot 
wonder  at  their  having  become  the  birth-place  of  that 
science.  The  remarkable  dryness  and  regularity  of  the 
climate,  the  serenity  of  the  sky,  and  the  transparency  of 
the  atmosphere,  particularly  point  to  that  region  as  admir- 
ably adapted  for  studies  and  investigations  of  this  nature. 
Constellations  of  the  eighth  magnitude  are  distinctly 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  while  between  May  and  Novem- 
ber meteors  fall  in  countless  numbers.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, when  ol)servatories  are  being  established  in  various 
less  favourable  localities,  it  appears  not  a  little  strange 
that  "  the  land  of  the  Chaldees "  is  passed  over  in  utter 
forgetfulncss.  AVith  the  appliances  and  correctly-adjusted 
instruments  which  the  march  of  civilization  has  produced, 
what  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  astronomy  and  me- 
teorology might  we  not  attain  by  erecting  an  observatory 
at  such  a  spot  as  Baghdad  or  Babylon ! 

•  Consult  Porphyr.,  apud  Simplic,  i.  2  ;  also,  Pliny,  vii.  67. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

View  from  Birs   Nimrud — Koffil — Ezc'del's   Tomb — Children   of  the 

Capti\ity. 

The  view  from  the  summit  of  tlie  Birs  Nimriid  is  veiy 
extensive,  and  its  utter  desolation  has  been  the  theme  of 
frequent  observation.  No  one  can  stand  there  and  sur- 
vey the  scene  around  without  being  struck  with  the 
literal  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  prophecy — "  I  will  make  it  a 
possession  for  the  bittern,  and  pools  of  Avater  ;  and  I  will 
sweep  it  with  the  besom  of  destruction,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts/'  ''•  Spreading  out  like  a  vast  sea  upon  the  north 
and  west  is  a  marsh,  which  all  the  labours  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  rulers  of  the  country  have  never  been  able 
to  subdue.  In  certain  seasons,  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
rise  above  their  ordinary  level,  and  flood  the  whole  surface 
of  the  low  lands  of  Chaldsea,  confirming  every  word  of 
the  prophet. 

Bordering  upon  this  marsh,  a  few  spots  attract  the  eye 
and  relieve  the  long  level  of  the  horizon.  Due  soutli 
stands  the  little  tomb  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  and  at  the 
distance  of  fifty  miles,  in  the  mirage  of  early  morning, 
may  be  discerned  the  mosque  of  the  sainted  'All,  glisten- 
ing like  a  speck  of  gold  as  the  beams  of  the  rising  sun 
play  upon  its  surface.  Nearer  at  hand,  on  the  north- 
west, are  the  twin  domes  of  Kerbella,  the  burial-place  of 
'All's  slaughtered  sons.  The  edge  and  islands  of  the 
*  Isaiah  xiv.  23. 
0 


34 


KEFFIL. 


marsh  are  at  times  clotted  with  encampments  of  Khuzeyl 
Arabs ;  and  with  the  telescope  may  be  distinguished 
their  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and  camels,  while  the  hum 
of  busy  voices  can  be  distinctly  heard  a  distance  of  full 
six  miles  across  the  waters. 

From  the  Birs  Nimriid  southwards,  a  road  runs  along 
the  raised  bank,  which  here  in  a  measure  restrains  the 
marsh  within  bounds.  A  succession  of  large  canal 
courses,  now  dry,  are  crossed  during  a  ride  of  twelve 
miles  to  the  little  town  of  Kefhl,  which,  from  its  want  of 


^^^{/i^SJ^ 


Keffil,  and  the  Tomb  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel. 


luxuriant  trees  and  vegetation,  looks  dull  and  sombre  in 
the  extreme — a  fitting  place  for  the  sepulchre  of  a  captive 
prophet  in  a  strange  land.  There  have  been  trees  at 
some  time  or  other,  as  a  few  stunted  palms  bear  witness  ; 
but,  like  the  town  itself,  they  have  witnessed  more 
flourishing  times.  They  are  ludicrous  specimens  of  their 
race,  and  stand  with  their  branches  projecting  straight 
upwards  into  the  air,  giving  them  the  appearance  of 
gigantic  brooms.  The  town  of  Keffl  is  protected  by  a 
high  wall,  and  defended  at  intervals  by  small  towers.  An 
old  broken-down  mosque,  with  minaret  to  match,  stooping 


TOMB  OF  EZEKIEL.  35 

to  its  fall — the  spire  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel's  tomb — and 
the  tops  of  the  houses  peeping  above — are  all  that  invite 
further  approach.  Except  when  a  crowd  of  pilgrims 
collect  at  the  annual  festival,  the  exterior  of  the  place  is 
deserted. 

The  spire  of  the  sacred  tomb  is  the  frustum  of  an 
elongated  cone,  tapering  to  a  blunted  top  by  a  succession 
of  divisions  or  steps,  cut  and  em]:>ellished  in  a  peculiar 
manner.  Similar  spires  frequently  occur  upon  tombs 
throughout  the  East,  where,  as  is  well  known,  forms  and 
customs  alter  but  Httle.  I  am  therefore  inclined  to 
regard  the  spire  of  the  Arab  tomb  as  analogous  to  the  fir 
cone  so  repeatedly  represented  on  the  bas-reliefs  at  Nine- 
veh. The  eagle-headed  and  other  figures  of  the  sculptures 
appear  to  present  the  cooie  of  Indian  corn — an  emblem  of 
the  first-fruits  of  the  earth — as  an  ofiering  to  the  Deity 
in  the  form  of  the  sacred  tree.  May  not  the  spire  of  the 
modern  tomb  have  some  similar  symbolical  meaning 
attached  to  it  ? 

There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  tradition  is  un- 
worthy of  credence,  which  assigns  to  Keffil  the  honour  of 
possessing  the  bones  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel.  The  con- 
tinued residence  of  the  Jews  in  the  land  where  their 
forefathers  were  consigned  in  exile,  and  the  respect  with 
which  the  tomb  has  for  so  many  centuries  been  regarded, 
not  only  by  the  Jews  themselves,  but  by  the  Mohamme- 
dans, ought  to  be  considered  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  the 
correctness  of  the  tradition.  The  Jewish  traveller,  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  centuiy, 
tells  us,  that  "the  monument  was  covered  by  a  large 
cupola,  and  the  building  was  very  handsome.  It  was 
erected  by  Jeconiah,  King  of  Judah,  and  the  35,000  Jews 
who  accompanied  him."  Of  course,  the  edifice  of  the 
Jewish  monarch,  if  such  ever  existed,  has  long  since  fallen 
to  ruin,  and  the  present  edifice  is  comparatively  modern. 


36  KEFFIL. 

It  is  remarkably  plain,  both  externally  and  internally, 
containing  two  vaulted  apartments — the  roof  of  the 
outer  one  being  supported  by  heavy  columns.  The 
sepulchre  is  cased  in  a  large  wooden  box  of  considerable 
age,  which  measures  ten  feet  long  liy  four  feet  high.  Its 
decoration  consists  of  a  piece  of  English  chintz  and  small 
red  and  green  flags.  The  chamber  itself  is  square,  the. 
side  walls  being  extremely  dirty  and  greased  with  oil. 
Tlie  floor  is  covered  with  a  filthy  matting.  The  vaulted 
ceiling  is  very  prettily  ornamented  with  scrolls  of  gold, 
silver,  and  bronze.  Built  into  one  corner  is  an  ancient 
Hebrew  copy  of  the  Pentateuch.  A  scanty  light  is  ad- 
mitted from  above,  and  an  ever-burning  lamp  sheds  a 
solemn  gloom  into  the  sanctuary.  The  flat  terrace  or 
roof  afi'ords  a  good  view  of  the  marshes  extending  to 
the  base  of  the  little  elevation  upon  which  the  town  of 
Keffil  stands.  The  flooring  of  the  terrace  is,  however,  in 
such  a  state  of  lamentable  filth  that  the  Jews  might,  mth 
every  justice,  be  charged  with  paying  little  or  no  respect 
to  the  memory  of  their  prophet.  The  interior  of  the 
town,  in  fact,  is  redolent  T\ith  odours  none  of  the  most 
agreeable. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  Jews,  a  host 
of  whom,  surrounding  the  door  of  the  sanctuary,  looked 
daggers  as  our  large  party,  booted  and  spurred  from  the 
journey,  crossed  the  sacred  threshold.  The  Oriental  Jews 
delight  in  wearing  none  but  the  very  gayest  colom-s,  so 
that  the  group  which  we  encountered  contrasted  strangely 
■wdth  the  dull  aspect  of  the  place.  A  number  of  Jewish 
ladies,  carefully  veiled  from  the  profane  eyes  of  strangers, 
were  also  assembled  on  our  arrival,  but  they  had,  one  and 
aU,  vanished  before  our  return  from  the  interior  of  the  dim 
tomb  into  the  glaring  light  of  day. 

Keffil,  being  on  the  verge  of  the  recently  disturbed  dis- 
trict, had  just  been  the  scene  of  some  hard  fighting.     The 


KEFPIL.  37 

place  was  held  by  a  small  garrison  of  Turkish  troops  as 
an  advanced  post.  The  Arabs  in  rebellion  attacked  and 
took  it,  putting  the  whole  garrison  of  sixty  men  to  the 
sword.  On  its  being  retaken  a  few  days  afterwards  by 
the  Turks,  the  bodies  of  the  poor  fellows  were  found 
still  unburied  and  barbarously  treated  by  their  savage 
enemies. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Marshes  of  Babylon — Khuzeyl  Ai-abs — The  Euphrates,  and  its  Canals 
—  Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — C}Tus — Alexander  —  Shuj  ah-ed- 
Dowla,  and  the  Indian  Canal. 

A  NIGHT  spent  at  Keffil  during  tlie  montli  of  September, 
is  by  no  means  to  be  envied ;  the  mosquitoes,  malaria, 
and  damp  of  tbe  marshes  being  all  but  certain  to  lay  in 
the  seeds  of  fever,  which  is  not  long  in  appearing. 

In  order  to  reach  Meshed  'All,  it  is  necessary  to  cross 
the  marsh.  For  this  purpose  boats  are  always  to  be  pro- 
cured at  Keffil.  They  are  heavy  clumsy  vessels,  con- 
structed of  Indian  teak,  about  40  feet  in  length,  with  high 
pointed  prows  and  sterns,  and  flat  bottoms  for  enabling 
them  to  skim  over  the  shallows.  Each  is  guided  by  two 
nearly  naked  Arabs,  one  of  whom  manages  the  cumbrous 
and  primitive  rudder,  while  the  other  attends  to  a  huge 
lug-sail — if  such  term  can  be  ajiplied  to  a  patchwork  of 
every  shape  and  colour,  fiUed  with  innumerable  holes. 

The  stream  flows,  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles  an 
hour,  through  a  continuous  rice-field,  which  is  prevented 
from  being  completely  overflooded  by  means  of  dams, 
constructed  of  stakes  and  reed  matting.  Sometimes, 
when  the  rise  of  the  Euphrates  exceeds  its  usual  level, 
the  country  is  a  vast  inundation.  On  such  occasions, 
whole  families  of  Arabs,  with  their  frail  dwellings  of  reeds 
and  tents,  are  swept  away  in  a  single  night.  These 
calamities  are  but  too  frequent.     Upon  a  few  elevated 


LABOUR  AND  TAXES.  39 

spots,  small  mud  forts  serve  as  citadels  for  refuge  in  case 
of  inundation  or  attack.  The  Arab  inhabitants  of  these 
marshes  are  a  fine  manly  race,  and  their  noble  forms  are 
particularly  striking.  Their  half-naked  and  deeply-bronzed 
bodies,  nourished  by  scanty  fare,  shew  every  muscle  to 
advantage  as  they  propel  their  vessels  with  long  poles  in 
the  shallows  against  the  wind  or  stream,  dexterously  run- 
ning along  the  edge  of  the  boat.  The  keffieh,  or  head-dress, 
is  useless  among  those  marshes,  for  the  long,  thick,  stream- 
ing hair  of  the  Khuzeyl  Arab  acts  as  the  most  natural 
covering,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  keeping  oft'  the 
rays  of  the  sun. 

In  sailing  along,  every  now  and  then  we  encountered  a 
noisy  party  in  a  crowded  boat,  who  gazed  with  Avonder, 
not  unmixed  with  alarm,  ujdou  the  European  fleet.  All 
appeared  life  and  activity  around  us  in  those  fens — the 
men,  not  languidly  smoking  their  pi^^es  like  the  dwellers 
in  cities  and  loungers  in  bazaars,  but  busy  at  their  daily 
employments,  as  agriculturists  should  be.  The  women 
were  engaged  about  their  tents  with  duties  not  less  arduous 
than  those  of  the  stronger  sex.  Notwithstanding  their 
labour  and  activity,  they  are  evidently  in  a  wretched  state 
of  misery,  and  ground  down  by  heavy  exactions.  The 
only  power  they  possess  of  resisting  injustice  is  that  of 
flooding  their  marshes,  but  this  is  only  temporary,  for 
without  cultivating,  how  are  they  and  their  families  to 
exist  during  the  ensuing  year "?  There  is  not  a  more 
industrious  race  thi^oughout  the  Turkish  empire,  and  if 
their  rulers  knew  but  how  to  treat  them,  both  would  be 
highly  benefited  Justice  and  security  of  proj^erty  and 
person  are  all  that  is  required  to  effect  this ;  but  know- 
ingly, and  with  impunity,  the  Turkish  authorities  permit 
the  farmers  of  their  revenues  to  oppress  their  temporary 
subjects,  and  evince  no  desire  to  protect  the  labouring 
classes.      Under  an  enlightened  government,  as  I  have 


40  DIKES  OF  THE  EUPHRATES. 

previously  remarked,  such  things  could  not  be.  In  the 
secluded  provinces,  however,  the  rulers  are  less  scrupulous 
than  those  nearer  to  the  capital.  The  Pasha  of  Baghdad 
is,  as  it  were,  an  independent  prince,  and  his  words  are 
law.  His  emissaries,  while  carrying  out  liis  claims, 
seldom  fail  to  enrich  themselves,  if  not  to  the  loss  of  the 
Government,  at  least  to  the  oppression  of  the  subject. 
No  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  province  is  in  constant 
disturbance,  and  that  the  Arabs  are  at  times  driven  to 
revolt  and  to  the  commission  of  barbarous  acts,  not 
characteristic  of  their  otherwise  honourable  and  kindly 
nature.  To  those  who  are  most  conversant  with  the  Arab 
character,  it  is  well  known  that  these  sons  of  the  desert 
may  be  guided  like  children  by  kindness  and  firmness. 

The  marshes  of  the  Khuzeyl  have  played  so  imjDortant 
a  part  in  the  history  of  the  Euphrates,  from  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  authentic  records,  down  to  the 
present  day,  that  a  few  remarks  upon  them  and  their 
connexion  with  "  the  great  river "  may  not  be  unin- 
teresting. 

During  the  530  miles  of  its  course  through  the  flat 
alluvial  plains  of  Babylonia,  the  Euphrates  does  not 
average  a  greater  fall  than  three  inches  in  the  mile,"^'  the 
consequence  of  which  is,  that  the  low  lands  on  either  side 
are  frequently  flooded  during  the  periodical  risps  of  the 
river.  In  order,  therefore,  to  check  the  dangerous  super- 
abundance of  the  Avater,  and  to  distribute  it  advantage- 
ously for  the  purpose  of  beneficial  irrigation,  dikes  and 
canals  were  instituted  at  a  very  early  period  in  the  history 
of  the  country,  and  were,  in  fact,  essential  to  its  very 

•  The  Volga  maybe  compared  with  the  Euphrates  as  regards  its  fall.  It 
has  its  origin  in  a  small  lake  on  the  slopes  of  the  platei,  .i  of  Valdai,  at  an 
elevation  of  550  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  whence  it  flows  in  a  gently 
inclined  bed  to  its  termination  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  83  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  Euxine.  Its, entire  fall,  over  a  conrse  of  2400  miles,  therefore,  amounts 
to  only  633  feet,  or  to  3*16  inches  per  mile. 


THE  PALLACOPAS.  4l 

existence/^  The  once  fabulous  Queen  Semiramis,t  we  are 
told,  cut  two  artificial  canals  at  a  considerable  distance 
above  Babylon,  and  turned  the  superfluous  waters  of  the 
Euphrates  into  the  Tigris,  by  this  means  obviating  the 
damage  which  the  city  and  surrounding  country  pre- 
viously sustained  from  inundation.  To  facilitate  the 
building  of  brick  walls  cemented  with  bitumen  along  both 
banks  of  the  river,  the  same  queen  caused  the  whole  body 
of  the  stream  to  be  diverted  by  a  large  canal  into  a  pro- 
digious lakej  forty  miles  square,  which  she  caused  to  be 
dug  on  the  west  of  Babylon. 

In  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  when  Babylon  was  a 
land  of  trafiic  and  "a  city  of  merchants," §  considerable 
attention  was  paid  to  the  proper  distribution  of  the  waters 
of  the  great  river.  The  primary  canals  of  Naln^  Malka 
and  Pallacopas  are  attributed  to  that  monarch.  It  seems 
probable,  however,  that  the  latter  work  was  merely  the 
re-opening  of  the  canal  dug  by  Semiramis,  and  its  exten- 
sion to  the  sea — thus  giving  two  distinct  branches  to  the 
Euphrates. 

During  the  effeminate  dominion  of  the  succeeding 
Persian  dynasty,  it  is  inferred  that  little  or  nothing  was 
done  towards  restoring  the  river  to  its  natural  course, 
so  that  it  continued  to  flow  into  the  marshes  west  of 
Borsippa,  or  Birs  Nimriid,  enlarging  the  Pallacopas 
opening. 

*  Herodotus,  i.  185.  Strabo,  xvi.  740.  Pliny,  vi.  26.  Diodorus  Siculus, 
ii.  100,  et  seq.     Arrian,  vii.  21  :  see  note,  p.  42. 

t  All  inscription  upon  a  statue  of  the  god  Nebu,  discovered  at  Nineveh, 
bears  the  names  of  Phuhikh  and  Sammuramit,  leading  to  the  supposition 
that  the  queen,  represented  under  the  Greek  name  of  Semiramis,  was  the 
Sammuramit  of  the  cuneiform  record,  the  wife  of  the  scriptural  Pul  (the 
Belochus  of  the  Greeks),  who  reigned  about  B.C.  750.  See  the  Athenceum, 
Nos.  1388,  1476,  1503. 

X  Herodotus,  i.  184-5.  This  exaggerated  description  undoubtedly  refcra 
to  the  Biihr  or  Sea  of  Nedjef. 

§  Ezekiel  xvii.  4. 


42  THE  PALLACOPAS. 

Xenoplion,"^'  in  describing  the  march  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
assistance  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  along  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Euphrates,  mentions  four  great  canals  crossed  by  the 
advancing  army,  viz : — the  Nahr-raga,  the  Nahr  Sares, 
the  Nahr  ^lalka,  and  the  Nalir  Kvitlia.  He,  of  course, 
knew  nothing  of  other  channels  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river  ;  but  if,  in  addition  to  the  above,  it  be  considered 
that  the  Pallacopas  carried  ojff  a  great  j^ortion  of  the 
Euphrates  towards  the  marshes  on  the  west,  we  can  per- 
fectly comprehend  that  which  afterwards  occurred. 

When  Alexander  the  Great  returned  from  his  Indian 
campaign,  and  desired  to  restore  Babylon  to  her  former 
grandeur,  he  found  so  little  water  passing  through  the 
city,  that  there  was  scarcely  depth  for  small  boats.  He 
therefore  determined  on  effectually  closing  the  mouth  of 
the  Pallacopas — which,  according  to  Arrian,  was  800 
stadia,  or  about  90  miles,  cibove  Babylon — and  on  digging 
a  new  canal,  where  the  nature  of  the  ground  was  ftiA^our- 
able  to  his  purpose.  His  historian  says,  "  When  he  had 
proceeded  30  stadia  (or  three  miles),  the  ground  was 
observed  to  be  rocky."  t     The  passage  is  interpreted  in 

*  Cycrop.  i.  p.  261-266. 

f  Arrian's  account  of  the  PallacoiDas  is  so  quaint  and  interesting,  that  I 
venture  to  give  a  hteral  translation  of  the  passage  : — 

"  But  in  the  meantime,  wliile  vessels  are  being  constructed,  and  a  harbour 
dug  at  Babylon,  Alexander  was  conveyed  by  the  Euphrates  from  Babylon 
to  the  river  Pallacopas.  This  is  distant  from  Babylon  about  800  stadia. 
Moreover,  this  Pallacopas  is  a  channel  cut  from  the  Euphrates,  not  a  river 
rising  from  springs.  For  the  Euphrates,  flowing  from  the  mountains  of 
Armenia,  flows  during  the  winter  between  banks,  inasmuch  as  it  has  not 
much  water ;  but  when  spring  sets  in,  and  much  more  under  the  heat  of 
summer,  it  increases  greatly,  and,  overflowing  its  banks,  inundates  the  plains 
of  Assyria.  For  then  the  .snows  melting  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia 
increase  its  waters  in  a  wonderful  manner  ;  and  thus  raised  to  a  great  height, 
it  overwhelms  the  whole  region  adjoining,  unless  any  person  turning  it 
aside  should  discharge  it  through  the  Pallacopas  into  the  lakes  and  marshes 
— ^which  indeed,  by  the  entrance  of  this  channel,  even  to  the  region  neigh- 
bouring on  Arabia,  and  from  thence  into  stagnant  places,  and  at  length  by 
many  and  unknown  windings,  is  carried  to  the  sea.    But,  when  the  snows 


THE  HTNDlEH.  '  ^ 

several  different  ways ;  but  I  believe  that  it  means  30 
stadia  above  Babylon,^'  wliicli  miglit  well  refer  to  tbe 
modern  channel  called  the  Hindieh — the  ancient  city 
extending  to  within  three  miles  of  its  mouth  ;  and  it  is  a 
curious  coincidence,  that  near  that  point  sandstone  rocks 
rise  through  the  alluvium  to  the  surface ! 

For  twenty-one  centuries,  since  the  time  of  Alexander, 
the  Euphrates  has  fluctuated  between  its  original  channel 
through  Babylon  and  this  new  opening,  until  at  length, 
the  navigation  of  the  latter  having  become  interrupted, 
an  Indian  prince,  named  Niiwab  Shiijah-ed-Dowla,  re- 
opened its  channel  one  hundred  years  ago.  Since  that 
date  it  has  been  called,  after  him,  the  "  Hindieh,"  and  has 

are  dissolved,  especially  about  the  setting  of  Vergilise,  the  Euphrates  grows 
small ;  but,  nevertheless,  a  great  part  of  it  is  drained  by  the  Pallaci  pas  into 
the  marshes.  Unless,  therefore,  some  one  should  again  block  up  the  chan- 
nel of  the  Pallacopas,  so  that  the  water,  repulsed  near  the  banks  (clams), 
remains  in  the  channel,  it  may  so  gi'eatly  drain  the  Euphrates  into  it,  that 
thus  the  fields  of  Assyria  cannot  be  irrigated  by  it.  Wherefore,  a  gover- 
nor of  Babylonia,  with  much  labour,  blocked  up  the  exits  of  the  Euphrates 
into  the  Pallacopas  (although  they  are  not  opened  with  much  difficulty) ; 
because  in  those  parts  the  soil  is  marshy  and  for  the  most  part  muddy, 
seeing  that  it  is  well  washed  by  the  water  of  the  river,  it  may  allow  of  the  less 
easy  shutting  out  of  the  water  : — so  that  they  may  have  occupied  more  than 
10,000  Assyrians  three  whole  months  at  this  work.  When  these  things 
were  told  to  Alexander,  they  incited  him  to  meditate  something  to  the 
advantage  of  Assyria.  Therefore,  at  the  point  where  the  flow  of  the 
Euphrates  is  drained  into  the  Pallacopas,  he  resolved  to  dam  its  mouth 
firmly  up.  W/ten  he  had  proceeded  thirty/  stadia,  the  ground  was  observed 
to  be  rocky,  of  such  kind  that,  if  a  cutting  were  carried  to  the  ancient 
channel  of  the  Pallacopas,  the  water  might  be  prevented  from  overflowing 
by  means  of  the  firmness  of  the  soil,  and  that  its  escajie  might  be  able  to 
be  effected  without  difficulty  at  a  stated  jieriod  of  the  year.  Therefore, 
Alexander  both  sailed  to  the  Pallacopas,  and  descended  by  it  to  the  marshes, 
into  the  region  of  Arabia.  There,  having  fixed  on  a  certain  convenient 
locality,  he  built  a  city,  and  surrounded  it  with  walls,  and  conveyed  to  it  a 
colony  of  Greek  mercenaries,  volunteers,  and  others,  who,  by  reason  of 
their  age  or  any  debility,  had  become  useless  in  war." — Arrian,  Be  Exp. 
Alex.,  lib.  vii.  c.  21. 

*  Many  authors  place  the  Pallacopas  and  Alexander's  cutting  beloic  Baby- 
lon, and  so  it  is  laid  down  upon  many  of  our  maps,  but  this  is  quite  con- 
trary to  the  ancient  accounts. 


44  THE  HINDlEH. 

caused  an  infinity  of  expense  and  annoyance  to  the  pashas 
of  Baghdad.  • 

The  mouth  of  this  interesting  canal  is  situated  about 
two  miles  below  the  khan  at  Musseib,  and  about  six- 
teen miles   above   the    commencement   of  the  existing 
ruins  of  Babylon,  at  a  point  where  the  natural  channel 
of  the  Euphrates  makes  a  sHght  eastern  bend.     When 
gTeatly  flooded,  the  violence  of  the  stream  frequently 
breaks  down  the  artificial  barriers  erected  to  regiilate  the 
influx  of  water,  and  enlarges  the  entrance  of  the  Hindieh. 
Immense  sums  of  money  are  expended  by  the  Turkish 
Government  in  rebuilding,  repairing,  and  strengthening 
the  dam,  because  the  river  has  a  tendency  to  quit  the 
Babylon  channel,  and  to  flow  westward  into  the  marshes, 
as  in  the  days  of  Alexander.     The  natural  efiect  is  to 
deprive  the  eastern  side  of  the  Euphrates  of  its  due  irri- 
gation, by  reducing  all  the  canals  below  the  point  of 
bifurcation  ;  the  villages  become  deserted,  and  the  fields 
uncultivated.     On  the  western  side,  the  rice-grounds  of 
the  Khuzeyl  Arabs  are  overflowed,  and  cultivation    is 
entirely  out  of  the  question.     The  chief  revenues  of  Bagh- 
dad being  derived  from  these  regions,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  equilibrium  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  Euphrates  should  be  properly  cared  for. 

Soon  after  the  accession  of  Abdi  Pasha  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  province,  like  aU  his  predecessors,  his  attention 
was  directed  to  this  subject.  The  force  of  the  stream, 
caused  by  the  extraordinary  rise  of  the  river,  had  carried 
away  every  trace  of  the  former  dams,  and  enlarged  the 
mouth  of  the  Hindieh  to  such  an  extent,  that  the 
Euphrates  bid  fair  to  disappear  into  the  western  marshes. 
He  therefore  cut ,  a  new  channel,  120  feet  broad,  at  a 
short  distance  above  the  bifurcation,  which  relieved  the 
pressure,  and  enabled  him  to  efi'ect  the  building  of  a  new 
and  strong  dam  of  osiers,  reeds,  and  earth,  at  the  mouth 


THE  WESTERN  EUPHRATES.  45 

of  the  Hinclieh,  while  the  quantity  of  water  admitted 
into  the  new  cut  was  regulated  by  two  solid  brick  piers, 
with  sluice-gates  eighty  feet  wide. 

Notwithstanding  all  this  expense  and  trouble,  the  river 
in  1854  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  once  more  regained 
possession  of  the  marshes.  Flowing  southwards  a  few 
miles,  a  deep  stream,  180  feet  wide,  with  banks  10  or  20 
feet  high,  the  Hindieh  enters  and  is  lost  in  the  great 
inundation,  extending  on  the  north  and  west  of  the  Blrs 
Nimriid,  passes  Keffil  and  the  ruins  of  Kilfa,  and  ulti- 
mately debouches  into  the  great  inland  freshwater  sea  of 
Nedjef. 

No  modern  traveller  has  yet  succeeded  in  following  the 
entire  course  of  the  ancient  Pallacopas,  but  traces  of  its 
channel  are  still  visible  on  the  east  of  the  town  of 
Nedjef.* 

The  great  sheet  of  water,  the  Bahr-1-Nedjef,  extends 
forty  miles  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and  at  its  south- 
ern extremity  gives  out  two  considerable  streams,  Shat- 
el-Khuzif  and  Shat-el-Atchan,  wliich  subsequently  unite, 
and  are  known  by  the  latter  name.  Further  to  the  south, 
five  large  bodies  of  water  have  their  origin  from  the 
Atchan,  and,  uniting,  constitute  the  Hiinin.  This,  after 
flowing  about  thirty  miles,  eventually  joins  the  Atchan, 
and  the  two  rivers  form  what  is  called  the  Western  or 
Semava  branch  of  the  Euphrates.  All  the  above  branches 
are  navigable  when  the  mouth  of  the  Hindieh  is  open,  and 
it  is  by  them  that  merchandise  is  conveyed  from  Busrali 
to  Hillah.     When  the  great  annual  rise  of  the  Euphrates 

*  The  marshes  between  the  mouth  of  the  Hindieh  and  tlie  Bahr-i-Nedjef 
were  first  surveyed  by  Jlr  T.  K.  Lynch  of  Edghdad,  who  there  frequently 
met  with  the  banks  of  an  ancient  canal — the  Ndhr-Algam — which  may  be 
the  veritable  channel  of  the  Pallacopas.  This  gentleman  communicated  an 
interesting  memoir  on  his  researches  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 
The  region  has  been  since  examined  in  more  detail  during  the  survey  of  the 
environs  of  Babylon  by  Captain  Jones,  I.N. 


46  **  PALUDES  BABYLONIA." 

occurs,  the  whole  region,  from  the  Bahr-i-Nedjef  to  Semdva, 
is  one  continuous  inundation,  called  the  "  Khor  Ullah,"  or. 
Marshes  of  God."^'  Here  and  there  it  is  dotted  with 
thousands  of  small  islands,  separated  from  each  other  by 
an  infinity  of  streamlets.  It  was  amid  the  innumerable 
channels  of  these  Paludes  Bahylonice  that  Alexander  was 
overtaken  by  a  storm,  and  all  but  lost,  during  his  sail 
down  the  Pallacopas.t 

It  is  only  when  the  mouth  of  the  Hindieh  is  opened  by 
the  destruction  of  the  dams  that  the  modern  traveller  is 
enabled  to  see  the  Paludes  Babylonice  as  Alexander  saw 
them.  When,  however,  the  Hindieh  is  closed  effectually  for 
a  time,  the  Khiizif  and  Atchan  cease  altogether  to  exist,  and 
the  town  of  Semava  is  supplied  by  two  smaU  canals  derived 
from  the  Hillah  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  near  Diwanieh. 
Such  was  probably  the  case  during  the  labours  of  the 
officers  in  the  Euphrates  expedition  under  Colonel  Chesney, 
as  the  streams  flowing  from  the  Bahr-1-Nedjef  are  not  laid 
down  on  any  map.  Instead  of  them,  however,  there  is 
the  course  of  an  extinct  river-bed  passing  east  of  the 
Bahr-1-Nedjef  to  Semava,  which  may  represent  the  Palla- 
copas  of  Alexander  in  a  portion  of  its  course. 

*  Between  Semdva  and  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Bdhr-i-Nedjef,  the 
marshes  were,  I  believe,  wholly  unexplored,  until  I  succeeded  in  sailing  in 
a  native  vessel  up  the  Huran  and  Atchdn,  to  Shindfieh,  the  residence  of 
the  Khuzeyl  Sheikh.  They  are  for  the  first  time  laid  down  on  the  map 
which  accompanies  this  volume. 

t  Arrian,  vii.  22,  and  Strabo. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Kufa— A  Fiery  Ride— Nedjef,  and  the  Tomb  of  'Ali— The  Ghyiwr  in 
the  Golden  Mosque  —  Fanaticism  of  the  Sheahs  —  Far-travelled 
Coffins  and  Costly  Interments  —  How  the  Prime-Minister  got  a 
Grave  at  a  Great  Bargain — Turkish  Torpor  and  Cleanliness  versus 
Persian  Dirt  and  Vivacity. 

A  SAIL  of  four  hours  and  a  half  from  Keffil  down  the 
stream  brings  the  pilgrim  to  a  little  tomb  dedicated  to 
Nebbi  Yunus  (not  the  prophet  of  Nineveh,  but  a  much 
more  modern  personage).  Here  the  freights  are  dis- 
charged from  the  boats,  and  the  journey  to  the  shrine  of 
'All  again  commences  by  land,  passing  over  a  spot  cele- 
brated in  modern  history. 

Sa  ad  ibn  'Abu  Wakkas,  after  the  signal  battle  obtained 
by  the  Moslems  at  Kadessiyya,  and  the  capture  of  the 
wealthy  city  Madayn,  would  fain  have  pursued  Yezde- 
gird,  the  last  of  the  Sassanian  kings,  to  the  Persian 
mountain  fortress  of  Hoi  wan.  He  was  restrained  from 
doing  so  by  the  cautious  Khallf  Omar,  who  feared  lest  his 
generals,  in  the  flush  and  excitement  of  victory,  might 
hurry  forward  beyond  the  reach  of  succour.  The  climate 
of  Madayn  proving  unhealthy  to  his  troops,  Sa  ad  was 
ordered  by  the  khalif  to  seek  some  favourable  site  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Euphrates,  where  there  was  good  air, 
a  well-watered  plain,  and  plenty  of  grass.  Sa'ad  chose 
for  this  purpose  the  village  of  Kufa,  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  the  spot  where  the  angel  Gabriel  alighted 
upon  earth  and  prayed — where  the  waters  of  the  deluge 


48  HOT  EIDE. 

first  burst  forth  from  the  ground — and  where  Noah 
embarked  in  the  ark !  The  Arabs  further  pretend  that 
the  serpent,  after  tempting  Eve,  was  banished  to  this 
place.  Hence,  they  say,  the  guile  and  treachery  for  which 
the  men  of  Kiifa  were  proverbial.  The  city  which  rose 
upon  this  spot  became  so  celebrated,  that  the  branch  of 
the  Euphrates  upon  which  it  stood  was  generally  denomi- 
nated Nahr  Kiifa.  The  most  ancient  characters  of  the 
Arabic  alphabet  are  termed  Kiific  to  the  present  day.  It 
was  here,  too,  that  the  unfortunate  'Ali — the  son-in-law 
and  successor  of  the  Prophet — was  assassinated,  in  the 
fifth  year  of  his  khalifat,  by  the  three  fanatic  leaders  of 
the  Karigites.'"'  Of  Kiifa  there  now  only  remain  a  few 
low  mounds  and  a  fragment  of  wall.  Although  the  city 
is  said  to  have  extended  to  Kerbella,  forty-five  miles  dis- 
tant, there  are  fewer  relics  of  its  greatness  now  visible 
than  of  Babylon,  wdiich  was  in  ruins  upwards  of  a  thou- 
sand years  before  the  foundation  of  Kufa  I  Whatever  may 
have  l^een  the  fertility  of  Kiifa  in  the  days  of  Sa'ad  ibn 
'Abii  Wakkas,  it  has  none  to  boast  of  now. 

From  Kilfa  to  Meshed  'Ali  is  a  distance  of  7  miles,  over  a 
gravelly  soil,  utterly  devoid  of  vegetation.  It  was  one  of 
the  hottest  rides  I  ever  remember  to  have  experienced. 
There  was  not  the  slightest  breath  of  air  to  dissipate  the 
heat.  The  dome  and  minarets  of  Meshed  'All  quivered 
in  the  mirage.  The  gravel  refiected  the  sun's  rays 
so  powerfully  as  to  cause  men  and  animals  to  seek  for 
temporary  shelter  under  the  scanty  shade  of  the  little 
round  towers  which  at  intervals  guard  the  road.  Our 
very  dogs  howled  piteously  being  obliged  to  follow  us, 
lest  they  should  be  left  behind.  Whenever  the  eye  rested 
for  an    instant    on   any   object,    it    felt    scorched    and 

*  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  scenes  with  which  KMa  is  connected 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Mohammedan  era,  see  the  "  Lives  of  the  Suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed,"  by  Washington  Irving. 


HIRA — NEDJEF.  49 

bloodshot.  An  umbrella  was  useless,  for,  although  it 
served  to  break  the  vertical  heat  of  the  mid-day  sun,  it 
concentrated  the  rays  reflected  from  the  ground,  and 
afforded  a  welcome  shade  to  the  few  flies  which  were  able 
to  exist  in  such  a  fiery  atmosphere.  Never  was  I  more 
gratified  than  in  gaining  the  tents,  already  pitched  in  a 
large  oblong  space  within  the  walls,  and  near  one  of  the 
gates  of  the  town  of  Nedjef.  Tahir  Bey,  who  accom- 
panied us,  had  insisted  upon  this  arrangement ;  he  would 
not  be  answerable  for  our  security  in  the  desert  outside, 
because  many  roving  parties  of  Bedouins  were  reported 
to  be  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Nedjef  was  founded  on  the  site  of  ancient  Hira,  which, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  first  century,  gave  origin  to  a  race 
of  Arab  kings,  who  subsequently  acknowledged  allegiance 
to  the  Persians,  and  acted  as  lieutenants  of  Irak.  During 
the  third  century,  many  Jacobite  Christians,  driven  by  per- 
secutions and  disorders  in  the  Church,  took  refuge  at 
Hira ;  and,  shortly  before  the  birth  of  Mohammed,  the 
king  of  Hira  and  all  his  subjects  had  embraced  Christi- 
anity. Much  is  said  of  the  splendour  of  the  capital, 
which  possessed  two  large  palaces  of  extraordinary 
beauty.  When  'Abii  Beker,  in  the  second  year  of  the 
khfdifat,  undertook  to  execute  the  injunction  of  the 
Prophet,  and  to  carry  out  the  gigantic  task  submitted  to 
him  of  converting  the  whole  world  to  Islamism,  he 
entrusted  the  conquest  of  Hira  to  the  energetic  Khaled. 
The  city  was  speedily  taken,  its  palaces  stormed,  its  king 
killed  in  battle,  and  an  annual  tribute  of  7000  pieces  of 
gold  imposed  upon  the  kingdom.  This  was  the  first 
tribute  ever  levied  by  Moslems  in  a  foreign  land,  and 
Hira  was  the  first  place  beyond  the  confines  of  Arabia 
occupied  by  their  advancing  hosts.'' 

*  See  Washington  Irving's  "  Lives  of  the  Successors  of  Mohammed,*' 
already  referred  to. 


50  VISIT  TO  THE  MOSQUE. 

Nedjef  is  at  the  present  day,  however,  far  more  cele- 
brated as  the  s^iot  where  the  body  of  the  murdered  'All 
was  consigned  to  the  tomb,  and  that  magnificent  mosque 
erected  over  it,  which  annually  attracts  thousands  of 
Sheah  ]\tohammedans  to  perform  a  pilgrimage  to  its 
shrine,  invariably  known  to  the  Persian  as  "Meshed  'AH." 

The  town  is  situated  on  a  cliff  of  reddish  sandstone 
and  gravel  forty  feet  high,  overlooking  the  Bahr-1-Nedje£ 
It  is  said  to  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  Jerusalem  in 
its  general  appearance  and  position.  The  w^alls  are  in 
excellent  repair,  and  surrounded  by  a  deep  and  wide 
moat,  now  without  water.  On  one  side^  this  moat  follows 
the  line  of  a  natural  ravine,  exhibiting  a  good  geological 
section  on  its  sides.  The  water  of  the  Bahr,  when  con- 
nected with  the  Euphrates,  is  sweet  and  drinkable,  but 
when  the  mouth  of  the  Hindieh  is  completely  closed,  it 
becomes  very  unpalatable,  and  the  people  of  Nedjef  are 
then  obliged  to  convey  water  from  Kiifa.  This  condition 
of  the  water  arises,  as  previously  stated,  from  its  con- 
nexion with  rocks  of  the  gypsiferous  series.  The  level  of 
the  sea,  observed  from  Nedjef,  has  undoubtedly  under- 
gone considerable  change — two  distinct  ranges  of  cliffs 
mark  its  former  extent  at  different  epochs. 

It  is  seldom  that  a  Christian  has  the  opportunity  of 
entering  a  Mohammedan  place  of  worship,  much  less  such 
a  sacred  mosque  as  that  of  Meshed  'All.  AVe  were  aU 
naturally  anxious  to  visit  it,  and  experienced  no  very 
insuperable  objection  on  the  part  of  our  Simni  compa- 
nions to  aid  in  the  accomplishment  of  our  wish.  Tahir 
Bey,  like  most  others  of  his  sect  and  race,  took  a  pleasure 
in  causing  the  Sheah  Persians  to  "  eat  dirt"  at  the  hands  of 
the  Ghyawr.  As  military  governor  of  the  district,  he  had 
accompanied  us  with  a  strong  escort,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  guarding  and  doing  honour  to  our  party.  The 
troops  were  now  drawn  up  under  the  latter  pretext,  but 


PERSIAN  AllT.  5) 

in  reality  to  conduct  us  to  tlie  mosque,  and  be  prepared 
for  any  emeute  which  might  arise  in  consequence  of  our 
temerity.  The  inhabitants,  in  accordance  with  their 
Oriental  customs,  rose  and  saluted,  or  returned  the  salutes 
of  Dervish  Pasha  and  Tiihir  Bey  as  we  passed  through 
the  bazaars  ;  but  they  bestowed  a  very  doubtful  and 
scrutinizing  glance  on  the  large  party  of  Firenghis.  A 
crowd  gathered  as  we  marched  onward,  and,  on  approach- 
ing the  gate  of  the  outer  court,  the  threatening  looks  and 
whispered  remarks  of  the  groups  around  made  it  evident 
that  we  were  regarded  with  no  especial  favour.  The 
troops  drew  up  outside  the  gate,  and,  as  any  hesitation  on 
our  part  might  have  produced  serious  consequences,  we 
boldly  entered  the  forbidden  threshold. 

It  is  all  but  impossible  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  an- 
other the  impression  produced  on  the  senses  by  the  first 
inspection  of  a  Persian  mosque.  The  extreme  richness 
and  brilliancy  of  the  polychromatic  decoration,  and  the 
exquisite  harmony  of  the  whole,  cannot  fail  to  leave  a 
lasting  impression. 

It  has  been  said,  and  is  generally  recognized,  that  the 
Arian  races,  among  whom  the  Persians  are  included, 
are  wanting  in  originality  of  design.  This  is  not,  how- 
ever, borne  out  by  facts,  because  no  Oriental  people 
exhibit  more  original  taste  than  the  Persians  in  beauty 
of  design  and  the  power  of  expressing  it,  as  exhibited  in 
their  edifices  and  works  of  art.  Mr  Fergusson,  in  his 
"Hand-Book  of  Architecture,""'  well  remarks  on  this 
subject,  that  "  they  are  now  too  deeply  depressed  to 
attempt  much ;  but  it  only  seems  to  require  a  gleam  of 
returning;  sunshine  to  ena])le  them  aoain  to  rival  in  art 
the  ancient  glories  of  Ninoveh  and  Persepolis." 

Like  the  generality  of  mosques,  that  of  Meshed  'All  is 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle.     The  mausoleum 

♦  Vol.  i.,  p.  411. 


52  MOSQUE  OF  MESHED  'alI. 

stands  nearly  in  the  centre  of  a  large  court,  the  walls 
of  which,  as  well  as  those  of  the  principal  building,  are 
adorned  from  top  to  base  with  square  encaustic  tiles. 
The  design  on  these  is  a  succession  of  scrolls,  leaves,  and 
doves  wrought  into  the  most  intricate  patterns.  The 
colours,  though  bright,  are  so  admirably  and  harmoniously 
blended  and  softened  down  by  lines  of  w^hite,  that  the 
surface  appears  like  a  rich  mosaic  set  in  silver.  Each  wall 
is  divided  by  two  tiers  of  blind  arches,  ornamented 
throughout  in  similar  manner,  above  each  of  which  are 
texts  from  the  Koran,  written  in  letters  of  gold.  Two 
liighly-decorated  gateways,  deeply  set  in  lofty  flat  panels, 
give  admission  to  the  gTcat  coiui}  of  the  mosque,  and 
serve  to  relieve  the  otherwise  monotonous  aspect  of  the 
enclosure.  The  summit  of  the  mausoleum  walls  are  like- 
wise surrounded  by  passages  from  the  Koran.  At  three 
corners  are  minarets,  two  of  which  in  front  are  covered 
throughout  with  gilt  tiles,  said  to  have  cost  two  tomans 
(£1  sterling)  each.  These,  together  with  a  magnificent 
dome  of  the  same  costly  material,  give  to  the  tout 
ensemble  a  gorgeous  appearance.  Seen  in  the  distance, 
with  the  sun  shining  upon  it,  the  dome  of  JMeshed  'All 
might  be  mistaken  for  a  mound  of  gold  rising  from  the 
level  deserts.  Before  the  door  of  the  shrine  stands  an 
elegant  fountain  of  brass,  bright  and  polished  like  the 
dome  itself. 

If  the  court  of  this  remarkable  building  be  so  gorge- 
ously and  extravagantly  adorned,  we  may  perhaps  credit 
the  accounts  of  its  internal  richness  and  magnificence. 
Slabs  of  the  purest  gold  are  said  to  pave  the  floor- 
ing of  the  sanctuary,  and  utensils  innumerable  and 
of  unknown  value — the  gifts  of  the  pious — to  decorate 
the  shrine.  If  all  be  true  which  Oriental  tongue  speaks, 
we  are  called  on  to  believe  that  a  mint  of  untold  treasure 
lies  concealed  in  the  vaults  below.     The  tomb  of  the 


POPULAR  INDIGNATION.  53 

great  saint  was  not  for  infidels  to  approach  and  defile  ; 
but  the  Gliyawr  were  perfectly  content  with  the  sight 
they  were  permitted  to  behold  in  the  court  of  the  mosque, 
in  which  there  was  more  than  sufficient  to  engaoe  atten- 
tion  and  excite  admiration.  It  is  exceedingly  strange 
to  remark  how  the  same  observances  have  prevailed 
unchanged  from  early  times.  We  read  that,  eighteen 
centuries  ago,  our  Saviour  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  "and 
found  in  the  temple  those  that  sold  oxen,  and  sheep,  and 
doves,  and  the  changers  of  money  sitting." '"'  So  in  the 
court  of  Meshed  'Ali  a  constant  fair  is  carried  on  at  stalls, 
which  are  supplied  with  every  article  likely  as  offerings 
to  attract  the  eye  of  the  rich  or  pious — among  these 
white  doves  are  particularly  conspicuou.s. 

We  did  not  tarry  long,  as  it  was  evident,  from  the 
demeanour  of  those  around  us,  that  we  were  not  welcome 
pilgrims  to  the  holy  shrine ;  we  therefore  slowly  retired, 
casting  a  last  lingering  glance  on  this  noble  and  fasci- 
nating specimen  of  Persian  art.  It  was  only  on  emerging 
from  the  gateway  that  we  for  the  first  time  perceived  the 
object  for  which  the  Turkish  troops  had  accompanied 
us.  Aware  of  the  excitable  feelings  of  the  Persian  crowd, 
Tahir  Bey  had  taken  all  parties  unawares,  by  marching  us 
direct  to  the  mosque  before  the  people  could  comprehend 
his  intention,  or  collect  for  the  purpose  of  resistance.  He 
subsequently  acknowledged  that  in  returning  he  was  not 
a  little  alarmed  at  the  aspect  of  the  populace.  Kindly 
feeling  and  hospitality  were  certainly  not  at  that  moment 
engraven  on  their  countenances.  It  is  difficult  to  forget 
the  expression  of  passion  which  greeted  any  of  the  party 
who  accidental!}^  brushed  against  the  robe  of  a  "  tnie 
believer."  The  injured  "  professor  of  the  faith  "  hastily 
drew  back,  muttered  an  audible  curse  on  the  unclean 
Firenghi,  and  proceeded  on  his  way  to  w^ash  and  cleanse 

•  John  ii.  14. 


54  CAHrjAGE  OF  CORPSES. 

himself  from  tlie  polluted  touch,  or  put  his  liand  on  the 
handle  of  his  broad-bladed  dagger,  as  if  about  to  inflict 
summary  vengeance  for  the  insidt  he  had  received. 
Nedjef  and  Kerbella  are  notorious  for  the  fanatics  who 
congregate  to  those  places  from  all  quarters.  If  they  had 
been  aware  of  Tiihir  Bey's  intention  to  admit  us  to  the 
mosque,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  would  have  collected 
in  front  of  the  gates  and  made  open  resistance  to  such  an 
iniquitous  proceeding  on  the  part  of  a  Mohammedan.  As 
it  was,  we  had  the  satisfaction  of  beholding  the  interior 
of  a  mosque,  to  which  but  few  Europeans  are  ever  likely 
to  obtain  access. 

The  profound  veneration  in  which  the  memory  of  'All 
is  regarded  by  his  followers,  causes  Nedjef  to  be  the 
great  j)lace  of  pilgrimage  for  the  Sheali  Mohammedans, 
by  whom  the  town  is  entirely  supported.     At  a  low 
average,  80,000  persons  annually  flock  to  pay  their  vows 
at  the  sacred  slnine,  and  from  5000  to  8000  corpses  are 
brought  every  year  from  Persia  and  elsewhere  to  be  buried 
in  the  ground  consecrated  by  the  blood  of  the  martp-ed 
khalif     The  dead  are  conveyed  in  boxes  covered   with 
coarse  felt,  and  placed  two  on  each  side  upon  a  mule,  or 
one  u]Don  each  side,  with  a  ragged  conductor  on  the  top, 
who  smokes  his  kaliyiln  and  sings  cheerily  as  he  jogs  along, 
quite  unmindfid  of  his  charge.     Every  caravan  travelling 
from  Persia  to  Baghdad  carries  numbers  of  cofiins  ;  and  it 
is  no  uncommon  sight,  at  the  end  of  a  day's  march,  to 
see  fifty  or  sixty  piled  upon  each  other  on  the  ground.    As 
may  be  imagined,  they  are  not  the  most  agreeable  com- 
panions on  a  long  journey,  es^^ecially  when  the  unruly 
mule  carrying  them  gets  between  the  traveller  and  the 
wind ! 

The  fee  charged  by  the  authorities  of  the  mosque 
for  burial  varies  from  10  to  200  tomans  (£5  to  £100), 
and  sometimes  much  more.     It  is  entii-ely  at  the  discre- 


BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD.  55 

tion  of  the  mullas,  and  they  proportion  it  according  to 
the  wealth  or  rank  of  the  deceased.     On  the  arrival  of  a 


Cai'iiage  ol  Corpses. 

corpse,  it  is  left  outside  the  walls,  while  the  relatives  or 
persons  in  charge  of  it  (frequently  the  muleteer  of  the 
caravan)  endeavour  to  make  a  bargain  for  its  final  rest- 
ing-place. Several  days  are  frequently  spent  in  vain  over 
these  preliminaries.  At  length  one  party  or  other  gives 
way — ^generally  the  relatives — as  the  corpse,  after  many 
days'  and  frequently  months'  carriage  in  a  powerful  sun, 
has  disseminated  disease  and  death  among  its  followers, 
who  are  glad  to  rid  themselves  of  its  companionship. 
The  place  of  sepulture  for  the  lower  classes,  or  for  those 
whose  friends  are  unwilling  to  pay  for  a  vault  within  the 
sacred  precincts  of  the  mosque,  is  outside  the  walls  on  the 
north  side  of  the  city,  where  the  graves  are  neatly  con- 
structed with  bricks,  and  covered  with  gravel  or  cement 
to  preserve  them  from  injury.     When  the  corpse  is  to  be 


56  nedjef:- 

buried  within  the  walls,  it  is  conveyed  into  the  town. 
The  officers  of  interment  then  generally  find  some  pretext 
for  breaking  the  former  compact,  and  the  unfortunate 
relatives  are  under  the  necessity  of  striking  a  fresh  and 
mucli  harder  bargain. 

The  same  system  of  official  fleecing  is  adopted  at  the 
adjoining  city  of  Kerbella,  where  a  story  is  told  of  the 
manner  in  Avhicli  Hadji  Mirza  Aghassi,  a  rascally  ex- 
prime  minister  of  Persia,  outwitted  the  cupidity  of  the 
hard-hearted  cemetery  authorities.  He  was  known  to  be 
enormously  wealthy,  and  had  gone  to  Kerbella  that  the 
sanctity  of  the  spot,  where  he  proposed  to  lay  his  bones, 
mio'ht  in  some  measure  atone  for  the  crimes  he  had  com- 
mitted.  On  his  deathbed,  he  sent  to  inquire  w^hat  sum 
would  be  demanded  for  a  vault  within  the  mosque,  and 
was  informed  that  no  less  than  2000  tomans  (£1000)  was 
expected  from  so  great  a  man  as  an  ex-prime-minister. 
He  then  sent  to  ask  the  fee  for  a  hole  outside  the  town. 
Thinking  he  was  joking  at  their  expense,  the  mullas 
replied  in  dudgeon  "a  keran"  (one  shilling).  The  old 
fellow  at  once  closed  the  l)argain,  and  was  actually  buried 
in  the  common  ground  !  His  tomb  is  marked  by  a  simple 
brick  monument,  which  attracts  much  attention  because 
it  covers  the  bones  of  a  "  great"  scoundrel. 

But  to  return  to  Nedj  ef .  The  constant  influx  of  Persians 
is  vastly  enriching  the  place,  as  proved  by  its  recent  en- 
largement, and  the  rebuilding  of  new  walls  round  a  great 
part  of  its  circuit.  To  remedy  the  inconvenience  at  times 
resulting  from  the  want  of  good  water,  a  new  canal  is  in 
course  of  construction  direct  from  the  Euphrates,  which, 
being  excavated  in  solid  rock  to  the  depth  of  fifty  feet, 
will,  when  finished,  reflect  great  credit  on  their  skill 
as  engineers.  Workmen  are  seen  busily  engaged  in 
building  and  restoring  houses,  and  tradespeople  appear 
to  thrive.     But  there  is  always  a  remarkable  contrast 


DISAGREEABLE  DISCOVERY.  57 

between  tlie  life  and  activity  of  a  Persian  and  the  dulness 
and  decay  of  a  Turkish  city.  There  is,  however,  one 
point  in  which  the  better-chid  Turk  surpasses  his  Eastern 
neighbour ;  he  always  exhibits  the  flowing  sleeve  of  a 
clean  under  garment,  but  the  Persian  has  no  regard  what- 
ever for  personal  cleanliness,  and  even  a  royal  prince  sel- 
dom indulges  in  the  luxury  of  a  change  of  linen. 

The  cimosity  of  the  inhabitants  of  Nedjef  was  exhibited 
more  than  is  usually  the  case  with  Orientals.  They  col- 
lected in  large  numbers  at  a  respectful  distance  from  our 
tents ;  some  even  went  so  far  beyond  their  ordinary 
habits,  as  to  bring  their  harems  to  indulge  in  a  prolonged 
stare  at  the  wonderful  Ghyawr  who  had  the  audacity  to 
enter  their  mosque.  The  night  was  oppressively  hot,  and, 
confined  within  the  close  walls,  we  felt  it  doubly  so  from 
previously  sleeping  in  the  open  desert. 

The  governor  took  every  precaution  against  danger  and 
insult,  by  placing  a  strong  guard  around  our  tents — sen- 
tinels being  stationed  at  very  short  intervals  apart.  But 
for  this  foresight,  it  is  possible  to  conceive  what  the 
audacity  and  fanaticism  of  the  Sheahs  might  have  dared 
and  eflected  during  the  darkness  of  night.  All,  however, 
passed  off  quietly,  and  long  before  dawn  the  Firenghi 
camp  was  astir.  While  the  tents  were  being  struck,  we 
were  suddenly  assailed  by  the  most  foul  and  unbear- 
able stench  ;  several  persons  retched  violently,  all  being 
more  or  less  affected.  It  was  afterwards  ascertained  that 
a  large  pile  of  coffins,  which  had  stood  for  several  days  in 
the  fierce  sun,  waiting  for  the  concluding  bargain  between 
their  owners  and  the  authorities,  had  been  hastily  removed 
on  the  previous  day  to  afford  space  for  our  camp.  They 
were  placed  out  of  sight  in  an  adjoining  empty  space, 
enclosed  by  a  high  wall,  but  the  morning  breeze  blowing 
from  that  direction,  unfortunately  revealed  that  which  it 
was  never  intended  should  be  made  known  to  us.     It  was 


58  EFFECTS  OF  LIGHT, 

fortunate  this  did  not  occur  diirino'  tlie  niglit,  or  we 
might  have  been  smitten  with  severe  illness.  Welcome 
was  the  bugle  sound  that  summoned  us  to  mount  our 
steeds  and  ride  forth  once  more  into  the  pure  atmosphere 
of  the  Arab  desert. 

On  quitting  Nedjef  the  commissioners  were,  of  course, 
saluted  by  the  garrison,  who  were  drawn  up  outside 
the  gate  for  the  purj)ose,  and  by  the  cannon  from  the 
walls.  As  the  red  light  momentarily  flashed  upon  the 
golden  dome  of  the  mosque,  the  efiect,  viewed  through 
the  column  of  white  smoke,  was  such  as  few  artists  can 
paint.  The  dead  gold  mass  was  for  the  instant  illumined 
with  a  colour  rivalliuo-  even  that  of  ]\Iont  Blanc  viewed 
from  Geneva  at  sunset.  There  was  a  sublimity  about 
the  scene  which  did  not  fail  to  impress  the  minds  of  all 
who  mtnessed  it.  As  if  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  the  sun 
immediately  afterwards  rose,  and  with  his  rays  enveloped 
the  mosque  in  a  flood  of  dazzHng  brilliancy. 


CHAPTEE  VIL 

Kerbella — The  Governor's  Dejeuner — The  "  Mtartyr  "  Husscjm,  and  Lis 
^losque — Siege  and  Massacre — The  "  Campo  Santo  "  at  KerbcHa — 
Oratory  of  'All — Magnificent  Sunrise — Eastern  Ladies,  ]\Iountcd  and 
on  Foot — The  Ferry. 

The  direct  road  from  Nedjef  to  Kerbella  runs  along  the 
skii't  of  the  great  Arabian  desert,  Lut  is  little  frequented 
on  account  of  the  danger  from  Bedouin  j)lunderers — none 
but  large  and  well-armed  parties  daring  to  follow  it. 
Within  sight  on  the  east  are  the  marshes  of  the  Hindieh, 
otherwise  the  route  is  entirely  without  water.  We  met 
nothing,  and  saw  nothing  worthy  of  notice  to  relieve  the 
tedium  of  this  desert  journey,  except  here  and  there  an 
Arab  tomb,  mth  a  few  reeds  stuck  into  the  sand  in  Heu 
of  gravestones,  and  now  and  then  a  human  skull  or 
the  skeleton  of  a  camel — the  remains  probably  of  some 
poor  wretches  overcome  by  fatigue  and  thirst,  whose 
strength  failed  them  before  the  long-coveted  di'aught 
could  be  attained. 

The  approach  to  Kerbella  is  somewhat  more  hvely  than 
that  to  Nedjef.  An  abundance  of  date-trees  surround 
the  town,  and  several  buildings  erected  outside  the  walls 
imply  a  greater  amount  of  security  from  the  roving  tribes. 
At  the  outskirts  are  several  kilns,  where  bricks  of  similar 
size  and  form  to  those  of  Babylon  are  made  for  modern 
purposes. 

Here  a  reception  and  scene  awaited  us  much  resem- 


60  TURKISH  HOSPITALITY. 

bling  tliat  wliicli  greeted  our  arrival  at  Hillali.  The 
civil  governor  came  forth  to  pay  his  respects,  accom- 
panied by  the  muUas  and  grandees  of  the  mosques,  in 
extensive  turbans  of  the  finest  and  cleanest  white  muslin, 
embroidered  with  gold,  and  otherwise  most  picturesquely 
attired.  In  truly  Oriental  style,  they  informed  us  that 
their  houses  and  all  they  possessed  were  at  our  disposal, 
a  compliment  which,  in  common  with  many  others,  means 
nothiug,  or,  as  the  Osmiinli  would  ex^Dress  it,  "  bosh."  As 
before^  a  b^jnd  endeavoured  to  execute  its  best  airs  on  the 
joyfid  occasion,  but,  as  every  man  played  his  own  tune, 
at  his  own  time,  and  with  all  the  lungs  which  nature  had 
endowed  him  with,  it  is  totally  impossible  to  say  what 
was  the  original  air.  Seldom  is  heard  such  a  discordant 
din  ;  it  was  laughable  beyond  endurance.  AVith  this  too 
great  attention,  in  a  cloud  of  dust  we  entered  the  gates 
of  Kerbella,  and  dismounted  at  the  seray,  where,  after 
coffee  and  pipes,  the  worthy  governor,  who  had  been 
previously  informed  of  our  expected  arrival,  announced 
that  he  would  be  highly  honoured  by  our  taking  break- 
fast. 

The  tents  had  but  just  arrived,  so  there  was  little 
prospect  of  our  meal  being  prepared  for  some  time.  The 
invitation  was  therefore  accepted,  and  we  were  duly 
ushered  into  an  adjoining  room,  where,  around  a  huge 
tray,  raised  a  foot  from  the  ground,  we  sixteen  hungry 
travellers  sat  down  upon  the  cushioned  floor.  The  com- 
ponents of  the  entertainment  were  pillaf,  a  few  vegetables 
cooked  in  a  variety  of  Avays,  and  one  small  dish  of  meat 
— all,  it  is  true,  pleasantly  flavoured  with  lemon,  but  so 
overwhelmed  with  grease,  that,  unless  the  guests  had  been 
himgry  beyond  description,  they  would  have  fared  but 
badly.  Each  dish,  however,  was  rapidly  emptied  of  its 
contents,  as  hand  after  hand  was  thrust  into  the  well- 
piled  heaps.     The  whole  entertainment  was  concluded 


PLANS  DEFEATED.  61 

with  a  large  bowl  of — not  intoxicating  liquors  (Moliam- 
medan  hospitality,  of  course,  does  not  admit  of  such 
forbidden  draughts)  ;  but — mild  innocuous  sherbet,  into 
which  we  dived  strange-shaped  wooden  spoons,  one  being 
supplied  to  every  two  or  three  persons  present.  When 
the  satisfied  guests  ceased  from  their  labours  and  looked 
around  upon  their  friends,  the  mutual  examination  was 
repaid  by  the  sight  of  greasy  hands  and  well-oiled  beards. 
This  ample  feast  duly  fitted  us  for  a  ramble  through  the 
town  and  a  visit  to  such  "  lions  "  as  KerbeUa  contained. 

Throughout  the  East  news  flies  with  unaccountable 
rapidity,  and  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  trace  its 
oriiiin.  An  instance  of  this  occurred  at  KerbeUa  on  the 
occasion  of  our  visit.  Although  we  had  travelled  in  the 
most  speedy  manner  from  Nedjef,  our  proceedings  at 
that  place  had  got  wind,  and  we  found  the  gateway  of 
the  great  mosque  of  Husseyn  filled  with  a  crowd  of  raga- 
muffins, most  forbidding  in  appearance,  armed  with 
clubs,  sticks,  and  daggers  to  oppose  our  entry.  At  the 
head  of  the  group  stood  a  dervish  with  demoniacal 
expression  of  countenance.  A  tuft  of  shaggy  hair  hung 
from  the  top  of  his  otherwise  bald  head,  and  his  felt 
garment,  scarcely  sufficient  to  cover  his  nakedness,  was 
patched  with  divers  colours,  and  in  every  direction. 
"With  his  legs  astride,  a  dagger  in  one  hand,  and  a  for- 
midable bludgeon  over  his  shoulder,  he  looked  the  picture 
of  a  rascal  capable  of  any  mischief,  and  ready  to  excite 
the  multitude  to  commit  any  excess.  During  our  stay 
at  KerbeUa,  this  dervish  acted  as  a  species  of  evil  spirit, 
watching  our  movements,  and  following  us  about  from 
place  to  place.  The  muUas  from  the  interior  made  a 
sign  that  we  should  not  approach.  AVe  were  therefore 
obliged  to  rest  contented  with  a  distant  view.  Tahir 
Bey  dared  not  to  force  a  passage  ;  nor  would  it  have 
been  prudent  to  do  so,  as  it  was  clear  that  the  populace 


62  MASSACRE  OF  HUSS^YN. 

was  prepared  for  resistance.  Although  the  soldiers  might 
have  beaten  off  an  undisciplined  mob,  we  shoidd  not  have 
been  justified  in  the  attempt.  Tolerably  good  views  of 
the  mosques  were,  however,  obtained  from  houses  in  their 
immediate  vicinity.  Two  or  three  of  our  Christian 
attendants,  favoured  by  some  of  their  Mohammedan 
fellows,  succeeded  in  gaining  admission  to  the  mosque  of 
Husseyn ;  but  they  were  soon  discovered,  beaten  with 
sticks,  stoned,  and  turned  out  along  with  their  intro- 
ducers. They  might  congratulate  themselves  in  getting 
off  so  easily.  A  short  account  of  the  origin  of  these 
monuments  may  not  be  without  interest  to  the  unini- 
tiated in  Arab  history. 

On  the  death  of  'All,  the  fourth  khalif,  according  to 
the  Sdnnis,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  the  Hegira,  his  eldest 
son  Hassan  was  elected  as  his  successor ;  but,  lacking  the 
energy  and  courage  necessary  during  the  civil  wars  that 
distracted  the  early  periods  of  the  Moslem  empire,  he 
shortly  afterwards  abdicated  in  favour  of  Moawyah,  his 
father's  great  opponent,  and  was  murdered  nine  years 
afterwards  at  the  instigation,  it  is  supposed,  of  Yezid,  the 
son  of  MoaT\^ah.  When  Yezid  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  khiiKfat,  his  first  aim  Was  to  secure  undisputed  pos- 
session of  power.  He  therefore  endeavoured  to  extract 
an  oath  of  fealty  from,  or  to  compass  the  death  of,  Hus- 
seyn, the  second  son  of  'All,  who  inherited  the  daring 
character  of  his  father.  Husseyn  discovered  the  plot,  and 
escaped  with  his  brothers  and  family  to  JMecca,  where  he 
declared  himseff  openly  in  opposition  to  Yezid.  On 
recei\dng  overtures  of  assistance  from  the  people  of  Kiifa, 
he  set  out  for  that  city  with  a  small  force  ;  but  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  Kilfites  were  fickle  and  faithless.  Obeid- 
'allah,  the  governor,  acting  with  promptitude,  sent  out 
strong  forces  to  intercept  Husseyn's  approach,  whose  little 
party  was  surrounded  at  Kerbella,  and  cut  off  from  the 


MEMORY  OP  HUSS^YN.  63 

waters  of  the  Euphrates,  so  that  they  suffered  the  extre- 
mities of  thirst.  After  various  parleys,  orders  were  issued 
by  Obeid'allah  to  'Amar,  in  command  of  the  khalif  s  forces : 
— "  If  Husseyn  and  his  men  submit  and  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  treat  them  kindly  ;  if  they  refuse,  slay  them — 
ride  over  them — trample  them  under  the  feet  of  thy 
horses  ! "  Hussepi,  seeing  that  all  hope  of  honoural^le 
terms  was  vain,  resolved  to  die,  but  to  die  bravely.  His 
little  band  determined  to  share  his  desperate  fortunes. 
A  general  assault  was  at  length  made  upon  his  camp, 
which,  being  skilfully  arranged,  was  for  a  time  success- 
fully defended.  Numbers,  how^ever,  ultimately  prevailed, 
and  Husseyn,  faint  from  loss  of  blood,  sank  to  the  earth, 
and  was  stripped  ere  life  was  fled.  Thirty  wounds  were 
counted  on  his  body.  His  head  was  sent  to  Obeid'allah  ; 
and  Shemr,  who  carried  the  order  for  his  death,  with  his 
troops,  rode  forward  and  backward  over  the  body,  as  he 
had  been  ordered,  until  it  was  trampled  into  the  earth. 
Seventy-two  followers  of  Husseyn  were  slain,  seventeen 
of  whom  were  descendants  of  Mohammed's  only  daughter, 
— among  them  Husseyn's  brother  'Abbas,  The  only  per- 
sons who  escaped  from  this  massacre  were  the  women 
and  children,  with  'Ali-ezgher,  the  son  of  Husseyn,  from 
whom  are  descended  the  modern  "  Seyids."  '^' 

The  Persians  hold  the  memory  of  Husseyn  in  great 
veneration,  entitling  him  Shahid,  or  the  Martyr.  He 
and  his  lineal  descendants  for  nine  generations  are  en- 
rolled among  the  twelve  Imams  or  pontiffs  of  the  Persian 
creed.  The  first  ten  days  of  the  month  of  Moharrem  are 
held  sacred,  in  commemoration  of  the  strife  between 
Husseyn  and  his  enemies,  and  are  called  "  'Ashiera," 
the  tenth  day  being  kept  with  great  solemnity  as  the  an- 

*  This  interesting,  but  cruel,  episode  in  Moslem  history  is  given,  with 
affecting  details,  in  Washington  Irving's  "  Lives  of  the  Successors  of  Mo- 
hammed," from  which  the  above  account  is  partially  extracted. 


64  SIEGE  OF  KERBELLA. 

niversary  of  his  martyrdom.  ■^''"  A  splendid  mosque  was 
erected  in  after  years  on  the  spot  where  he  fell,  and  to 
which,  it  is  said,  the  body  of  his  brother  Hassan  was 
removed.  An  inferior  one  was  dedicated  to  'Abbas,  their 
brother,  who  shared  the  fate  of  Husseyn.t 

The  mosque  of  Husseyn  is  very  similar  in  plan  to  that 
of  Meshed  'All,  but  cannot  be  compared  mth  it  for  rich- 
ness of  decoration,  cleanliness,  or  state  of  repair.  The 
dome  only  is  gilded.  One  of  the  three  minarets  appears 
in  imminent  danger  of  falling  into  the  coiu't  below,  the 
walls  of  which  are  in  a  most  dilapidated  condition.  This 
state  of  things  arises  from  the  occupation  of  the  city  by 
the  Turkish  troops  under  Daoud  Pasha  of  Baghdad. 
Nedjef  and  Kerbella,  being  sanctuaries  of  high  repute, 
were  resorted  to  by  every  class  of  ruffians  and  bad  cha- 
racters, the  extent  of  whose  outrages  became  so  glaring 
that  it  was  necessary  to  suppress  and  root  them  out 
from  their  places  of  concealment.  The  pasha  made  him- 
self master  of  Nedjef ;  but  Kerbella,  being  thus  rein- 
forced by  the  expelled  "  Yerrimasis,"  held  out  during  a  long 
siege.  An  approach  was  made  to  the  weakest  part  of  the 
walls,  where  a  breach  was  eventually  effected.     The  sol- 

*  These  fetes  are  celebrated  among  the  Persians  witli  theatrical  represen- 
tations of  the  scenes  attendant  on  the  death  of  Husseyn,  for  an  account  of 
which  I  may  refer  the  reader  to  Lady  Sheil's  amusing  "  Glimpses  of  Life 
and  Manners  in  Persia,"  p.  125. 

t  At  the  distance  of  a  day's  gallop  from  Kerbella  is  another  site  of 
extreme  interest  in  the  history  of  the  Arab  conquest,  El  Kadder,  the 
ancient  Kddessiyya,  where  Sa'ad  ibn  'Abd  Wakk4s,  the  founder  of  Ktifa, 
utterly  vanquished  the  vast  Persian  host,  and  seized  the  sacred  standard 
of  the  Ddrdfash-i-Kd\vdni,  the  loss  of  which  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of 
the  loss  of  power  by  the  Persians.  With  the  disaster  at  Kddesslyya  the 
rule  of  the  Sassanian  kings  terminated,  and  the  religion  of  Mohammed 
spread  unchecked  throughout  L'dn.  Kddessiyya  has  been  visited  by  two 
Englishmen — Messrs  W.  B.  Barker  and  Boulton — who  met  with  extensive 
ruins  and  halls.  These  are  ornamented  with  a  range  of  masks,  carried 
round  the  archivolts  of  the  arched  roofs,  in  the  same  style  as  at  Al  Hddhr 
in  the  desert  near  Mosul,  where  they  present  such  a  remarkable  feature  in 
Sassanian  architecture. 


CEMETERY  AT  KERBELLA.  65 

diers  entered,  and  the  place  was  given  over  to  pillage, 
when  the  most  dreadful  scenes  took  place.  The  troops 
poured  volleys  among  unoffending  women  and  children, 
and  massacred  the  inhabitants  within  the  very  mosques. 
Tahir  Bey  himself  was  an  officer  at  this  cruel  siege,  and 
received  his  promotion  in  consequence.  With  his  own 
hand  he  cut  down  three  of  the  Yerrimasis,  while  his  men, 
dragging  forth  seventy  from  among  a  party  of  women,  with 
whom  they  had  taken  shelter,  shot  them  on  the  spot ! 

The  marks  of  this  celebrated  siege  are  still  visible  in 
various  parts  of  the  town.  Opposite  to  the  seray,  the 
houses  demolished  have  never  been  rebuilt,  but  exhibit  a 
wretched  scene  of  destruction.  The  mosques  suffered 
seriously,  and  the  ravages  of  the  cannon-balls  are  dis- 
tinctly traceable  on  their  domes,  as  well  as  in  the  walls 
of  the  town,  where  the  holes  made  have  not  been  repaired. 
The  date-trees  also  exhibit  evident  marks  of  the  injuries 
received  from  a  cross  fire,  which  for  a  length  of  time 
prevented  the  batteries  of  the  Turks  from  making  the 
breach.  Several  have  holes  through  the  centre  of  their 
stems,  others  have  large  pieces  torn  from  their  sides  ;  one 
still  flourishes,  although  the  branches  are  merely  con- 
nected with  the  stem  by  a  narrow  strip  of  wood  on  one 
side ;  some  have  never  recovered  the  effect  of  their 
wounds,  but  stand  like  stunted  poles,  without  foliage.''^ 

The  arrangements  for  the  disposal  of  the  dead  at  Ker- 
bella  are  on  the  same  system  as  at  Meshed  'All ;  but  the 
numbers  conveyed  thither  yearly  are  considerably  larger- 
— Kerbella  being,  for  some  reason  or  other,  both  pecu- 
liarly aristocratic  and  popular.  It  is  always  alluded  to 
by  the  Persians  in  preference  to  Meshed  'Ali.  Little 
respect  is  shewn  to  the  dead  in  committing  them  to  th^ir 

•  It  was  chiefly  in  consequence  of  this  siege,  that  hostilities  had  almost 
taken  place  between  the  Turkish  and  Persian  Governments,  as  stated  in  the 
opening  chapter  of  this  volurao. 

E 


G6  "tent"  of  'ALf. 

last  resting-place,  a  grave  being  dug  of  barely  sufficient 
depth  to  cover  the  coffin,  which  is  hastily  and  unceremo- 
niously covered  up.  Cemeteries  throughout  the  East  are 
generally  kept  in  tolerable  order ;  but  at  Kerbella  no 
care  is  exhibited,  the  brickwork  of  the  graves  has  fallen 
in,  and  the  ravages  of  dogs,  jackals,  and  hyaenas  may  be 
observed  in  the  holes  they  have  made,  and  in  the  foul 
shreds  of  every  hue  and  colour  torn  from  the  coffins  and 
bodies  of  the  corpses.  It  might  be  thought  that,  seeing  such 
a  disgusting  sight,  the  thousands  of  pilgrims  who  return 
to  their  homes  would  be  induced  to  discountenance  the 
system  of  conveying  the  remains  of  their  friends  to  this 
place.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case  ;  and  the  desire  to 
be  buried  on  a  spot  rendered  sacred  by  the  blood  of  a 
martyr,  prevails  over  all  other  considerations,  and  a 
tomb  at  Kerbella,  or  Meshed  'Ali,  is  looked  on  as  an 
expiation  for  the  greatest  crimes,  and  a  surety  that,  at 
the  day  of  judgment,  the  pardoned  sinner  will  rise  into 
the  seventh  heaven."^' 

This  system  of  forming  cemeteries,  and  conveying  the 
dead  for  interment  to  some  distant  and  sacred  spot,  has 
prevailed  from  very  early  times  among  different  nations. 
I  shall,  have,  ere  long,  to  describe  some  remarkable  ancient 
cemeteries,  which,  from  their  magnitude,  could  never  have 
originated  from  a  fixed  population  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  unless  aided  by  an  accumulation  from 
many  distant  localities. 

Outside  the  gates  of  Kerbella  is  a  small  oratory,  said  to 
have  been  erected  on  the  spot  where  the  great  'All  had  a 
celebrated  vision  in  his  tent,  and,  from  that  circumstance, 
it  is  called  "  the  tent  of  'All."  It  is  a  dodecagon,  having 
six  entrances,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  covered  veranda 

*  These  are  not,  however,  the  only  sacred  burial-places  to  which  the 
Persians  resort.  Kdthem4'in  near  Bdghddd,  Sdmdra,  Meshed,  and  Koom 
are  all  likewise  hallowed  from  possessing  the  bones  of  the  descendants  of 
'AIL 


STRANGE  EFFECT.  67 

supported  on  columns.  Judging  from  the  cracks  in  the 
building,  it  is  not  destined  to  stand  for  any  great  length 
of  time.  The  whitened  walls  were  written  over  with 
many  extracts  from  Persian  poets  and  modern  eifusions. 
hut  the  place  was  anything  but  clean.  Two  cunning- 
looking  Persian  mullas  received  us,  but  objected  to  our 
entering  with  our  boots.  Having  no  desire  to  insult  their 
prejudices  we  abstained  from  going  beyond  the  veranda  : 
but  the  Turkish  officer  accompanying  us  took  no  notice  of 
the  objection,  and  walked  boldly  in.  "  By  'All's  beard  ! 
why  do  you  enter  this  clean  and  holy  place  to  pol- 
lute it  with  your  unclean  feef?"  said  one  of  the  guar- 
dians, in  angry  expostulation.  "  My  boots  are  quite  as 
clean  as  your  filthy  floor !  Look — see  the  dirt  upon  it ! 
When  you  clean  your  floor  I'll  take  ofi"  my  boots  ;  Ijut  I 
am  not  going  to  soil  my  feet  to  please  you,"  was  the 
answer  returned,  to  the  intense  disgust  of  the  mullas. 

The  bazaars  of  Kerbella  are  well  supplied  with  all 
kinds  of  grain,  and  articles  from  every  part  of  the  world 
carried  thither  by  the  pilgrims.  It  is  celebrated  for  the 
manufacture  of  filigree-work,  and  for  elaborate  engraving 
upon  the  nacreous  valves  of  the  pearl  oyster  (avicula 
margaritifera),  obtained  from  the  fisheries  at  Bahreyn,  in 
the  Persian  Gulf 

Travellers  love  to  descant  on  the  beauties  of  Eastern 
cities  ;  but  it  is  seldom  that  it  falls  to  their  lot  to  witness 
such  wonderful  effects  of  light  as  fell  under  my  own 
observation  on  this  short  journey.  Early  on  the  morn- 
ing of  departure  from  Kerbella,  I  took  a  stroll  to  a  little 
distance  from  the  walls,  and  beheld  a  mag-nificent  spec- 
tacle as  "the  glorious  orb  of  day"  rose  above  the  hori- 
zon, and  gradually  lighted  up  the  golden  dome  of  the 
great  mosque.  The  dark  and  comparatively  sombre  green 
surface  of  that  which  enshrines  the  bones  of  'Abbas  still 
remained  enveloped  in  a  thick  curtain  of  blue  mist,  until 


63  ORIENTAL  LADIES. 

an  orange  or  deep  red  tint  crept  slowly  over  the  principal 
featnres  of  the  edifice.  Tliis  continued  during  the  space 
of  at  least  two  minutes,  when  the  strange  and  fairy-like 
effect  was  dispelled  by  the  bright  sunshine.  While  it 
lasted,  it  was  truly  imposing  and  enchanting. 

From  Kerbella  our  party  returned  direct  to  Baghdad, 
followino;  for  a  considerable  distance  the  course  of  a  canal 
derived  from  the  Euphrates,  which,  on  account  of  its 
flowing  to  the  tomb  of  the  saint,  is  called  Husseyniyya. 
The  quantity  of  earth  deposited,  and  frequently  thrown 
out  of  its  bed,  is  so  great  as  to  form  an  enormous  line  of 
mound  on  either  side.  Unless  attention  in  this  respect  is 
paid  to  irrigating  canals,  they  soon  become  choked  with 
sediment,  and  cease  their  operations.  The  path  to  Miis- 
seib,  being  traversed  by  so  many  pilgrims  and  caravans 
on  their  way  to  and  from  Kerbella,  is  completely  cut  up 
by  parallel  tracks,  and  more  beaten  than  any  other 
throughout  the  East.  It  is,  however,  generally  considered 
unsafe,  and  a  large  caravan  was  said  to  have  been  bodily 
carried  off  by  the  Bedouins  two  days  before  we  passed 
along  it.  Fearing  a  like  fate,  some  Persian  ladies,  with 
their  attendants,  begged  they  might  be  permitted  to  take 
advantage  of  our  escort. 

The  custom,  universally  adopted  by  Oriental  ladies,  of 
riding  astride  like  a  man,  is  certainly  the  most  ungrace- 
ful that  can  be  conceived.  Enveloped  in  the  ample  folds 
of  a  blue  cotton  cloak,  her  face  (as  required  by  the  strict 
injunctions  of  the  Koran)  concealed  under  a  black  or 
white  mask,  her  feet  encased  in  wide  yellow  boots,  and 
these  in  turn  thrust  into  slippers  of  the  same  colour,  her 
knees  nearly  on  a  level  with  her  chin,  and  her  hands 
holding  on  by  the  scanty  mane  of  the  mule — an  Eastern 
lady  is  the  most  uncouth  and  inelegant  form  imaginable. 
On  foot,  too,  her  appearance  is  not  much  improved ;  for 
the  awkw<  rd  boots  and  slippers  compel  her  to  slide  and 


THE  FEKllY-BOAT.  69 

roll  along  in  such  an  ungainly  manner  as  forcibly  to 
remind  the  beholder  of  a  duck  waddling  to  a  pond,  or  of 
a  bundle  of  clothes  on  short  thick  stilts.  To  complete 
the  picture,  it  must  be  left  to  those  European  ladies  who 
have  had  the  fortune  to  gain  admission  to  the  privacy  of 
a  harem,  to  state  whether  the  tone  and  conversation  of 
their  Mohammedan  friends  is  more  polished  and  elegant 
than  their  external  appearance ;  many  a  fair  form  is 
concealed  beneath  a  rough  exterior  ;  but,  if  we  may  judge 
of  the  fair  sex  of  Islam  by  the  native  Christian  ladies, 
I  fear  the  answer  will  not  be  satisfactory.  I  remember 
on  one  occasion  seeing  an  Armenian  beauty  at  a  fete 
presented  with  a  choice  bouquet.  On  receiving  it,  she 
languidly  rose  from  the  embroidered  ottoman,  and  then 
— to  the  utmost  surprise  and  indignation  of  the  giver — 
deliberately  sat  upon  it ! 

The  Euphrates  at  Milsseib  is  crossed  by  ferry-boats — 
huge,  unwieldy  apparatuses,  roughly  built  of  planks  over- 
laid with  bitumen,  and  each  capable  of  containing  some 
dozen  loaded  animals,  and  a  motley  throng  of  human 
beings,  men,  women,  and  children.  A  low  projecting  bow 
acts  as  a  landing-jetty,  and  the  craft  is  guided  by  a  rud- 
der of  most  complicated  construction,  sufficiently  large  to 
steer  a  vessel  three  times  its  size.  Men,  with  poles  in  the 
shallow  water  and  rude  oars  in  the  stream,  propel  the 
mass  onwards  ;  and  thus,  after  an  infinity  of  shouting, 
and  screaming,  and  invocations  of  'AH,  the  boat  reaches 
the  opposite  shore.  A  throng  of  ragged  pilgrims,  on 
their  return  from  Kerbella,  had  just  preceded  our  party, 
and  were  squabbling  who  should  fii-st  enter  one  of  these 
Noah's  arks,  when  our  cavasses — with  the  usual  prompti- 
tude and  small  sense  of  justice  which  these  officers  possess 
in  so  peculiar  a  manner — rushed  into  the  crowd,  and,  by 
dint  of  tongue  and  stick,  fighting  their  way  through  it, 
seized  the  beleaguered  boat  for  our  especial  use.     Ex- 


70  CROSSING  THE  RIVER. 

eluded  from  it,  the  struggle  for  supremacy  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  craft  alongside,  and  the  usual  scene  at 
a  ferry  occurred.  Every  would-be  passenger  endea- 
vour's to  obtain  a  footing  for  himself  and  his  animal, 
whether  horse,  mule,  or — still  more  useful  "friend  of 
man" — the  donkey,  whose  slit  nostrils  and  raw  hide 
prove  that  his  services  are  scarcely  appreciated  as  they 
ought  to  be.  Footing  once  secured,  the  difficulty  is,  how 
to  induce  the  frightened  animals  to  raise  their  other  three 
feet  fi-om  terra  Jirma  into  the  same  position,  but  caresses 
and  hard  thumps,  kicks  and  curses,  usually  effect  the 
desired  object.  When  the  boat  is  crammed  so  full  that 
no  restless  animal  can  stir,  the  boat  is  shoved  off,  and  the 
Kving  mass  takes  its  chance  of  floating  or  sinking,  "as 
Allah  mils  it" — the  gunwale  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the 
water-level.  The  animals  of  our  party,  however,  usually 
crossed  the  river  in  the  more  expeditious  and  primitive 
manner  represented  in  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs.  The 
common  herd  was  driven  into  the  water,  and  compelled 
to  swim  the  stream,  but  grooms  led  the  more  valuable 
horses  by  their  halters  into  the  river,  and  swam  across 
with  them,  urging  the  unwilling  with  barbarous  grunts, 
such  as  can  only  proceed  from  an  Arab  mouth.  The  pads, 
saddles,  and  bridles  were  passed  over  with  the  baggage 
in  the  boats.     All  crossed  safely  to  the  opposite  side. 

Milsseib  is  a  miserable  but  busy  place, .  supported 
entirely  by  the  traffic  to  and  from  Kerbella.  Large 
quantities  of  grain  from  the  land  adjoining  the  Euphrates 
were  being  thrashed,  and  a  number  of  women  were  em- 
ployed in  grinding  it  wdth  the  ordinary  stone  hand-mill 
of  the  country.  Nearer  to  the  river,  men  were  mending 
kdfahs — those  round  boats  described  by  Herodotus  as 
used  in  his  time  upon  the  rivers  of  Babylonia, — made 
of  reeds,  coated  inside  and  out  with  melted  bitumen, 
derived  from  the  springs  of  Hit,  higher  up  the  Euphrates. 


Mt^SSEIB.  71 

Others  were  employed  in  making  baskets  from  tlie  stems 
of  the  liquorice-plant  {GlycyrrMza  glabra),  which  they 
adeptly  twisted  together.  Above  the  village,  on  the 
eastern  side,  a  sud  or  dam  of  earth  had  been  recently 
constructed  at  a  point  where  the  river  had,  during  the 
season  of  flood,  burst  upon  the  land,  and  swept  all  before 
it  as  fiir  as  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  At  a  few  miles  from 
Miisseib  we  rejoined  the  road  previously  traversed  be- 
tween Baghdad  and  Hillali,  and  reached  the  former  place 
without  new  adventure. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Climate  of  Chaldsea — Christmas  in  Baghdad — Departure  for  the  South 
— Mubdrek's  Misadventui-e — ^The  Ky^ya  of  Hillah — Bashl-B^uks. 

Further  political  questions  detained  the  commissioners 
at  Baghdad  until  the  end  of  December,  when  the  decree 
was  issued  for  our  proceeding  to  the  frontier.  It  was 
arranged  that  the  H.E.I.C/s  armed  steamer,  Nitocris, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  FeUx  Jones,  whose  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  the  country  and  amiable  disposition 
are  so  well  known  to  travellers  in  that  remote  region  of 
the  globe,  should  convey  the  whole  party  to  Mohammerah, 
the  southern  point  of  the  disputed  boundary  line.  The 
mules,  horses,  and  servants  were  to  proceed  by  land, 
guarded  by  the  troop  of  cavalry  appointed  by  the 
Turkish  Government  as  its  due  portion  of  an  escort  to 
accompany  the  commissioners  during  the  progress  of 
their  labom^s.  It  was  proposed  that  this  party  should 
travel  by  the  direct  route  through  Lower  Mesopotamia, 
instead  of  the  more  beaten  track  along  the  western  side 
of  the  Euphrates.  As  the  route  by  the  Jezireh'"'  had 
been  scarcely  visited  by  Europeans,  I  naturally  felt  a 
strong  desire  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  now 
afforded  of  breaking  new  groimd.  I  was  influenced  by  a 
twofold  object :  that  of  examining  the  geology  of  the 
Chaldaean  marshes,  and  that  of  exploring  the  ruins  of 

•  Jezlreh  means  "  island,"  and,  although  a  misnomer,  is  applied  to  the 
whole  of  Mesopotamia  between  the  two  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 


PREPARATIONS  AT  BAGHDAD.  73 

Warka,  to  which  native  tradition  assigns  the  honour  of 
being  the  birthplace  of  the  patriarch  Abraham.  Colonel 
Williams,  ever  ready  to  afford  fticilities  to  scientific  enter- 
prise, not  only  granted  a  willing  consent  to  my  proposal 
to  join  the  overland  party,  but  also  suggested  that  Mr 
Churchill  should  accompany  me. 

In  order  that  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  difficul- 
ties and  dangers  attending  a  journey  into  Lower  Baby- 
lonia or  Chaldaea  Proper,  I  may  here  miention,  that, 
during  spring  and  summer,  when  the  Hindieh  branch 
of  the  Euphrates  is  closed,  the  greater  part  of  the  comitry, 
from  above  lat.  32°,  is  a  continuous  marsh  towards  the 
south,  quite  impassable  except  in  canoes  called  ter- 
radas.  In  these  the  natives  are  enabled  to  keep  up  com- 
munication among  themselves  on  the  spots  of  elevated 

land   which   raise   their   heads  above   the   surroundino- 

o 

swamps.  The  heat,  however,  prevents  the  approach  of 
travellers.  In  autumn  these  inundations  rapidly  subside, 
but  the  resultant  malaria  is  so  great  as  to  deter  any 
European  from  invading  this  terra  (if  it  can  be  so  called) 
incognita.  The  only  season  of  the  year,  therefore,  which 
frees  Chaldaea  from  water  and  fever  is  the  winter,  when  the 
air  becomes  rarified.  The  great  alternations  in  tempera- 
tm-e  which  here  take  place  are  scarcely  to  be  credited. 
No,  sooner  does  the  ardent  heat  of  summer  abate,  than 
cool  breezes  begin  to  blow,  and  the  thermometer  quickly 
falls  below  the  freezing  point.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  soil  of  the  marshes  is  a  comparatively  recent 
deposit  from  the  retiring  sea  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  is 
therefore  highly  impregnated  with  marine  salts,  across 
which  the  wind  in  its  passage  is  rendered  intensely  cold. 
T  have  myself  seen  the  Arabs,  completely  benumbed,  drop 
from  their  saddles.  But  during  winter  another  obstacle 
opposes  progress.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  country, 
which  was  a  few  months  previously  covered  with  inunda- 


74  INACCESSIBILITY  OF  CHALDiEA. 

tion,  is  now  waterless,  sometimes  for  two  or  three  days' 
journey.  The  Arab  tribes,  too,  are  perfectly  wild  and 
uncontrolled,  regarding  strangers  among  them  with  in- 
finite suspicion. 

Under  such  unpromising  circumstances,  it  is  not  at 
all  surprising  that  this  region  has  been  so  little  visited, 
and  that  so  many  monuments  of  its  past  history  still 
remain  to  be  explored.  In  no  other  part  of  Babylonia  is 
there  such  astonishing  proof  of  ancient  civilization  and 
denseness  of  population.  Some  lofty  pile  is  generally 
Aosible  to  mark  the  site  of  a  once-important  city ;  while 
numerous  little  spots,  covered  with  broken  pottery,  point 
to  the  former  existence  of  villages  and  of  a  rural  popula- 
tion. Traces  of  old  canal-beds  prove  the  care  with  which 
the  whole  country  was  watered  when  the  marshes  were 
confined  within  proper  limits,  and  the  land  of  the  Chaldees 
flourished. 

Christmas-day  was  spent  in  great  festivity  at  the  hos- 
pitable and  well-ordered  board  of  the  British  Eesidency, 
where  all  the  Europeans  at  Baghdad  met,  as  customary, 
to  celebrate  our  gTeat  Christian  festival.  On  the  second 
morning  afterwards,  a  gathering  took  place  outside  the 
gates  of  the  city,  at  the  little  bridge  over  the  Mess'iidl 
canal,  preparatory  to  our  long  journey.  The  caravan  was 
of  considerable  size,  being  composed  of  the  servants  and 
animals  belonging  to  the  four  commissions — the  whole 
escorted  by  four  light  guns,  and  one  hundred  weU- 
mounted,  well-armed  Turkish  cavalry.  The  fittle  red 
and  white  pennants  attached  to  the  lances  of  the  soldiers 
imparted  a  gay  and  lively  appearance  to  the  cavalcade  as 
it  moved  along. 

We  pursued  the  road  previously  travelled  to  HiUah, 
which  place  we  reached  in  a  heavy  shower  of  rain  on  the 
third  day.  Here  an  accident  happened,  which  was  near 
proving  fatal  to  a  wild  Dhefyr  Arab,  named  Miibdrek, 


STARTING.  75 

whom  I  liad  taken  into  my  service,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Captain  Jones,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  my  little 
party  in  case  of  any  temporary  separation  from  the  main 
body  dming  my  researches.  I  was  im willing  to  be  entirely 
dependent  on  the  troops  for  guidance  and  safe-conduct, 
and  it  is  always  advisable,  on  entering  an  unknown 
region,  to  secure  the  protection  of  a  native,  or  one  weU 
acquainted  with  the  people  amongst  whom  the  traveller 
has  to  pass.  The  Dhefyr  Arabs  belong  to  the  true 
Bedouin  tribes,  and  roam  from  the  western  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  along  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Euphrates, 
far  into  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  They  bear  the  character 
of  being  more  cruel  and  bloodthirsty  than  the  generality 
of  Bedouins ;  but  they  claim  a  species  of  freemasonry 
among  other  tribes — any  ragamuffin  among  them  enjoy- 
ing the  privilege  of  protection  in  an  extraordinary  way. 

In  the  present  instance,  however,  the  Dhefyr  proved  to 
be  rather  an  embarrassment  than  a  gain  to  my  party ;  for 
his  depredations  had  so  frequently  been  extended  into  the 
marshes  on  the  east  of  the  Euphrates,  that  there  was  no 
good  feeling  manifested  towards  him.  Of  this,  however, 
I  was  not  aware  at  the  time  of  engaging  him.  Miibarek 
was  not  one  of  the  brightest  nor  most  prepossessing  of 
Arabs.  He  was  little  in  stature,  ugly  in  countenance, 
dirty  in  person,  and  his  abba  and  keflfieh  were  both  in  the 
last  stage  of  decay.  He  brought  with  him  another  of  his 
tribe — a  half-witted  fellow,  named  Mayuf,  whose  drolleries 
served  to  amuse  the  tedium  of  the  barren,  cheerless 
desert.  Just  before  reaching  the  point  at  which  the  road 
turns  through  the  gardens  towards  the  bridge,  Miibiirek's 
horse,  a  spirited  little  animal,  with  only  a  halter  on  his 
head,  took  fright,  leaped  a  wall,  and  tore  away  at  a 
furious  pace  among  the  thickly-planted  date-trees.*  The 
Arab,  of  course,  had  no  control  over  his  steed,  and  ran 
the  chance  of  getting  his  brains  dashed  out  by  coming 


76  THE  DHEFYR  AEAB. 

in  contact  with  a  tree.  The  horse  rushed  onwards 
nothing  daunted  by  the  labyrinth  he  had  to  thread,  until 
his  feet  becoming  entangled  in  the  work  of  some  cotton- 
spinners,  he  threw  his  rider  with  great  violence.  The 
poor  fellow  lay  senseless,  with  the  blood  streaming  from 
his  mouth  and  nostrils,  when  an  Arab  bystander  hastened 
to  bring  him  round  in  the  most  approved  native  manner. 
Kaising  the  injured  man  in  his  arms,  he  shook  liim 
exactly  as  a  farmer  shakes  a  sack  of  wheat  to  settle  down. 
the  grain !  By  so  doing,  it  was  supposed  that  the  blood 
would  be  expelled  from  the  head  into  its  right  place. 
After  several  repetitions  of  the  operation,  the  patient 
opened  his  eyes,  gave  a  deep  exclamation  of  "  Allah ! 
Allah  \"  picked  up  his  spear,  and  then,  apparently  little 
the  worse  for  his  accident,  staggered  after  his  truant  and 
unmanageable  steed. 

On  gaining  the  western  side  of  the  bridge,  we  learned 
that  the  Tm^kish  officers  of  Dervish  Pasha's  suite  had 
kindly  exerted  themselves  in  obtaining  quarters  for  my- 
self and  companion  at  the  house  of  Shebib  'Agha,  the 
Kyaya  of  Hillah,  a  venerable  gentleman  with  long  flow- 
ing beard  of  the  purest  white,  whose  visible  family  con- 
sisted of  his  brother — a  fac-simile  of  himself — and  three 
sons,  varying  from  nine  to  twelve  years  of  age.  The 
boys,  all  handsome  little  fellows,  standing  with  the  ser- 
vants in  the  presence  of  their  father  and  his  gTiests,  pre- 
sented us  with  coffee  and  the  usual  accompaniments  on 
our  arrival.  Our  kind  host  insisted  on  supplying  our- 
selves, servants,  and  animals,  with  food  and  provender 
during  om'  stay  in  Hillah.  Anxious  to  obtain  as  much 
information  as  possible  on  the  subject  of  our  journey,  I 
inquired  concerning  our  line  of  route,  and  ascertained 
that  he  had  visited  Niffar,  one  of  the  great  ruins  in 
the  centre  of  the  Jezireh.  I  therefore  asked  if  he  had 
seen  the  stone  obelisk  which  is  said  to  He  near  the  mound. 


SHEBfB  'aGHA.  77 

Shebib  'Agha  stroked  liis  beard,  considered  for  a  moment, 
and  then  replied,  that — "  By  Allah !  he  did  not  remember 
to  have  seen  any  snch  stone  ;  but  the  Arabs  tell  a  story 
that  sometimes  they  see  a  boat  jutting  out  of  the  ruins, 
which  shines  like  gold,  with  a  flame  of  fire  proceeding 
from  its  centre  ;  but,  Mashallah !  the  Arabs  are  so  alarmed 
at  the  sight,  they  dare  not  approach  1"  He  could,  of 
course,  give  no  further  information  concerning  this  won- 
derful apparition. 

The  rain  continuing  to  fall  in  torrents  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  day,  we  were  confined  to  the  house.  In  the 
interval  three  Jews  called  on  the  kyaya,  and  entered 
into  a  lono;  but  animated  discussion  with  him  on  the 
subject  of  an  overcharge  of  taxes.  One  of  the  Israelites 
was  a  voluble  and  accomplished  orator,  rolling  forth  the 
Arabic  gutturals  with  all  the  roundness  and  fluency  of  a 
true  son  of  the  desert.  He  certainly  made  use  of  his 
talents  to  the  utmost,  but  whether  with  or  without  effect 
on  the  purse-strings  of  the  kyaya,  I  cannot  say,  because 
I  quitted  the  house  before  his  oration  was  concluded.  I 
may  here  notice  a  fact,  which  must  infallibly  occur  to 
the  observation  of  travellers.  When  two  Englishmen 
meet,  the  "weather"  is  generally  the  introduction  to 
other  topics  of  conversation,  but  is  soon  forgotten  in  the 
interest  of  other  subjects.  Throughout  the  East,  how- 
ever, "  money"  is  the  all-absorbing  theme.  Money  begins 
and  ends  a  conversation.  The  word  "  piastre,"  "  keran," 
or  "fluce,"  invariably  occurs  within  the  first  few  sen- 
tences, and  as  invariably  ends  the  debate !  Frequently, 
after  a  lengthened  discussion  on  the  subject,  a  little  dirty 
bag  is  produced  from  the  inner  folds  of  the  dress,  and 
two  or  three  small  coins  are  counted  out  with  the  greatest 
deliberation. 

I  was  now  informed,  to  my  great  disappointment  and 
vexation,  that  the  troops  had  received  counter-orders, 


78  FRESH  ARRANGEMENTS. 

and  were  to  proceed  by  the  ordinary  road  from  Hillah 
by  the  west  of  the  Euphrates.  Thus  all  my  plans  and 
arrangements  appeared  in  a  fair  way  of  being  frustrated. 
I  was  not,  however,  disposed  to  resign  them  without  an 
effort,  and  therefore  set  out  with  my  companion  to  con- 
sult with  our  good  friend  Tahir  Bey,  who  fortunately 
happened  to  be  in  the  town.  He  was  as  frank  and 
hearty  as  ever,  but  strongly  endeavoured  to  dissuade  me 
from  my  intention.  He  represented  truly  the  kind  of 
country  we  should  have  to  traverse  :  the  great  inunda- 
tions, and  the  wild  character  of  the  native  Arabs,  likely 
to  rebel  against  the  government  at  any  moment.  See- 
ing, however,  that  his  representations  did  not  alter  my 
determination,  he  recommended  me  to  take  a  few  Bashi 
Baziiks,  or  irregular  horsemen.  On  my  assenting  to  this, 
he  immediately  issued  his  orders,  and,  moreover,  volun- 
teered to  furnish  me  with  letters  to  certain  sheikhs, 
through  whose  tribes  we  should  have  to  pass.  I  felt 
highly  pleased  at  the  promptitude  he  shewed  in  meeting 
my  wishes,  and  took  leave,  anticipating  the  delightful 
prospect  before  me  of  entering  on  ground  hitherto  un- 
trodden by  European  foot. 

It  was  arranged  that  the  bulk  of  our  animals  should 
proceed  with  the  troops  under  the  charge  of  a  cawas, 
the  mlr-i-akhor  (master  of  the  horse),  and  the  greater 
number  of  servants,  while  a  small  proportion  was  set 
apart  as  our  o^vn  especial  convoy. 

At  sunset,  we  sat  down  to  an  Arab  dinner  provided 
by  our  host.  After  much  entreaty  the  old  gentleman 
consented  to  sit  mth,  instead  of  waiting  upon  us.  We  had 
already  discussed  one  greasy  dish,  and  were  waiting  for 
another,  when  my  servant  unfortunately  placed  wine 
upon  the  table.  Shebib  Agha,  like  a  good  Mussulman, 
jumped  up  as  if  shot  through  the  heart ;  nor  could  all  our 
entreaties,  nor  even  the  removal  of  the  alarming  bottle  of 


KETTLE-DRUMS,  AND  CONSEQUENCES.  79 

forbidden  liquid,  prevail  on  liim  to  resume  his  seat  at  the 
board.  He  had  sat  with  Ghyawr  who  drank  wine  ;  they 
were  not  therefore  fitting  companions  for  one  of  the 
faithful ! 

The  continued  rain  during  the  night  delayed  the  ap- 
pearance of  our  future  escort,  which  did  not  shew  itself 
till  the  sun  shone  forth  late  the  following  morning,  ^vhen 
eight  well-mounted  Bashi  Bazuks,  with  two  drummers, 
mustered  before  the  door  of  Shebib  'Agha's  house.  There 
is  something  irresistibly  absurd  to  the  European  traveller 
for  the  first  time  riding  out  of  a  town  preceded  by  his 
guard  and  a  couple  of  fellows  beating  a  monotonous 
sound  out  of  a  pair  of  bad  kettle-drums.  It  was  with 
some  difficulty,  under  such  circumstances,  that  we  could 
compose  our  risible  faculties  so  as  to  act  our  parts  with 
due  and  proper  decorum,  while  the  shopkeepers  and 
passengers  in  the  bazaars  stood  in  respectful  attitudes 
and  received  the  salutes  to  which  they  were  entitled.  I 
was  not  sorry,  when,  outside  the  date-groves,  the  musi- 
cians announced  their  intention  of  returning  into  town. 
On  the  receipt  of  a  small  "  bakhshisli,"  they  hastened  to 
the  bosom  of  their  families,  while  we  made  for  the  heart 
of  the  desert. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

From  Hillah  into  the  Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The  Surly 
Sheikh,  and  his  Black  Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb  and  Blue 
PiU— New  Year  1850. 

Directing  our  course  towards  the  ruins  of  Niffar,  our 
first  two  days'  journey  was,  for  the  most  part,  across 
a  level  and  sandy  desert,  intersected  by  an  infinity 
of  ancient  water-courses,  whose  streams  had  centuries 
back  ceased  to  flow,  their  very  existence  being  sometimes 
only  faintly  indicated  by  the  darker  colour  of  the  soil, 
arising  from  the  salts  contained  in  it.  Now  and  then  a 
low  mound  or  a  few  fragments  of  pottery,  bricks,  and 
glass,  assisted  us  to  beguile  the  time  by  speculations  and 
discussions  on  the  former  inhabitants  of  the  land,  and 
in  making  comparisons  between  the  past  and  present. 
Like  Paley's  watch  on  the  heath,  what  reflections  may  not 
a  fragment  •  of  pottery  stir  up  !  In  this  manner,  and  in 
takino;  carefid  notes  and  observations  of  the  route,  the  hours 
passed  rapidly,  and  we  fidly  enjoyed  the  novelty  of  the 
scene  before  us  in  that  deserted  and  barren  plain — for 
so  it  may  be  called,  because  the  inhabited  and  cultivated 
spots  are  so  few  and  far  between,  in  comparison  with  the 
wide  expanse  of  rich  land  uninhabited  and  uncultivated, 
throughout  Mesopotamia.  Independently,  however,  of 
the  strange  associations  called  forth  by  bricks  and  pot- 
tery, the  journey  was  delightfid,  from  the  very  uncer- 
tainty attending   its   course,    from   the   excitement    of 


BASHlYYA.  81 

knowing  that  an  unexplored  region  lay  before  ns,  and 
from  the  enjoyment  of  the  pure  freshness  of  the  desert 
air  after  the  recent  rain.  Even  the  scanty  Arab  tents — 
although  presenting  the  usual  scene  of  squalid  filth,  and 
(as  one  is  disposed  to  conceive)  consequent  misery — had 
some  variety  in  their  character  and  disposition.  Deter- 
mined on  being  pleased  with  anything,  it  would  have 
been  a  sad  pity  if  we  had  been  disappointed. 

The  only  point  worthy  of  notice  during  the  first  day's 
journey  was  a  remarkable  range  of  low  sandhills,  which 
alter  their  form  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
It  has  been  conceived  that  their  presence  is  due  to  springs 
of  water  below  the  surface  ;  but  ]\Ir  Layard  offers  another 
explanation.  During  his  journey  in  1850-51,  across  this 
region,  he  mentions  having  passed  two  or  three  places 
where  the  sand,  issuing  from  the  earth  like  water,  is 
called  "  Aioun-er-nimmel,"  sand-springs.'"'  I  observed  no 
such  phenomenon ;  but  consider  these  hiUs  as  the  van- 
guard of  those  vast  drifts  which,  advancing  from  the 
south-east,  threaten  eventually  to  overwhelm  Babylon 
and  Baghdad.  Further  in  the  interior,  these  drifts  are 
largely  developed,  and  spread  over  large  tracts  of  country 
not  occupied  by  the  marshes.  They  are  temporarily 
arrested  at  this  particular  locality  by  the  decayed  stumps 
of  numerous  tamarisk  bushes,  that  project  and  appear 
to  be  the  nuclei  around  which  the  drifts  accumulate. 

The  advancing  and  destructive  progress  of  the  sand  is 
seen  at  the  little  hamlet  of  Bashiyya,  about  five  miles 
farther.  The  square  walls  of  an  enclosure  gave  shelter 
and  security  to  a  few  families,  who  supplied  us,  during 
our  first  night's  encampment,  with  fowls  and  milk — the 
usual  luxuries  of  Arab  life.  A  large  grove  of  date-trees, 
also  surrounded  by  walls,  flourished  along  the  bank  of  an 
old  canal-bed,  and  shaded  an  old  Arab  tomK     The  term 

•  «  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  54& 
F 


82 


SAND-DRIFT3. 


"  khithr"  (verdure)  is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  spots 
where  a  patch  of  green,  or  even  a  single  tree,  relieves 
the  dull  monotony  and  continued  glare  of  a  desert  soil — 
and  it  is  therefore  frequently  applied  to  these  oases. 

On  subsequently  visiting  Bashiyya,  in  January  1854,  a 
great  change  had  come  over  it ;  the  sands,  drifting  from 
the  south-east,  had  produced  a  desolation  as  imposing  as 
that  of  Nineveh  or  Babylon.  Its  inhabitants  were  gone, 
the  walls  were  barely  visible  above  mounds  of  sand, 
the  canal  courses  were  utterly  extinguished,  and  the 
date-trees  rapidly  dying  from  the  lack  of  necessary 
moisture. 

The  invasion  of  this  drift-sand  is  also  observable  at 
Nllhya,"''  about  nine   miles  east  from  Bashiyya.     This 


Mobammedan  Ruins  at  Nflfy3r8 


famous  Arab  city  is  mentioned  by  'Abiil-Fedah  as  existing 
in  his  time  upon  the  great  canal  of  Nil,  from  which  it 

•  During  my  journey  in  1854,  through  the  Jezirch,  in  charge  of  the  expe- 
dition sent  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Assyrian  Excavation  Society,  I 
visited  these  ruins  in  company  with  Messrs  Lj'nch  and  Boutcher.  They 
were  of  great  size,  but  so  concealed  under  the  sand-drifts  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  ascertain  their  full  extent.  The  principal  buildings  remaining, 
are  a  few  fragments  of  an  old  mosque,  and  some  piers  of  a  bridge  over  the 


BUILDING  A  BRIDGE.  83 

took  its  name.  In  1848,  the  sand  began  to  accumulate 
around  it,  and  in  six  years  the  desert,  within  a  radius  of 
six  miles,  was  covered  with  little  undulating  domes,  while 
the  ruins  of  the  city  were  so  buried  that  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  trace  their  orioinal  form  or  extent.  This  feature 
is  to  be  expected  in  a  low  flat  country,  recently  (in  a  geo- 
logical point  of  view)  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  as  we  know 
to  have  been  the  case  with  Chaldaea. 

For  the  next  few  days,  pointed  or  domed  buildings, 
erected  over  the  bones  of  some  imam  (holy  man,  or 
influential  chief),  served  at  intervals  for  marks  to  guide 
our  path,  being  of  infinite  value  to  the  traveller  in  these 
deserts.  They  indicate  likewise  that  a  much  larger  popu- 
lation obtained  in  comparatively  modern  times.  During 
two  days'  journey  from  Hillah,  several  of  these  white 
tombs  dot  the  horizon,  and  are  known  by  the  name  of 
the  saint  buried  at  each,  such  as  Imam  Khithr,  Imdm 
Ashjeri. 

The  son  of  the  sheikh  at  Bashlyya  undertook  to  guide 
the  party  to  the  tents  of  Sheikh  Mulla  'All,  to  whom  we 
carried  letters  from  Tahir  Bey.  A  vast  inundation  from 
the  Shumeli  Canal,  derived  from  the  Euphrates,  obliged 
us  to  make  a  considerable  detour  before  reaching  the 
bridge  by  which  all  traflic  is  carried  on.  It  proved  to  be 
a  single  date  log  thrown  across  the  stream ;  but  it 
afi'orded  such  a  precarious  footing,  that  the  first  mule 


bed  of  the  Nil,  which  i^assed  through  the  centre  of  the  city.  There  was  no 
appearance  of  any  relics  earlier  than  the  Mohammedan  era  ;  if  such  exist, 
they  are  buried  under  the  more  modern  d6bris.  Seen  from  Nlliyya  are  the 
following  mounds : — 

Zibbai-,  four  miles  distant,  bearing 21°  35' 

ElMeheri, 48  10 

ElBershieh, 64  45 

NIshdn  Uivdn,  )  .  .      ,  ,    .,,•„„         .        .        .        .  123  10 

ElKhitherlat.T^'''^""^^^^^'^^^"^-''        ....  131  30 
Habil-i-Sakr,  a  large  ruin  of  black  stone,  said  to  be  six  or 

seven  hours  from  Ed,gdddleb,  on  the  Tigris.    ...  41       0 


$4  AKAB  CURIOSITY. 

on  attempting  to  cross  slipped  and  fell  sideways  on  the 
bank.  The  cook's  stores,  onions  and  lemons,  pots  and 
kettles,  were  seen  floating  in  joint  fellowship  down  the 
canal.  My  people  and  the  Bashi  Baziiks  endeavoured  to 
raise  the  prostrate  beast,  but  to  no  purpose.  A  few 
Arabs  from  the  adjoining  tents  gathered  round,  but 
shewed  no  disposition  to  assist,  until  the  soldiers  had 
recourse  to  their  whips,  and  thus  secured  a  few  volunteers. 
The  mule  raised,  they  were  next  set  to  repair  their  own 
bridge,  which  otherwise  would  have  been  allowed  to  rot. 
Several  labourers  returning  from  the  plough  were  also 
gently  pressed  into  the  service.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
the  bridge  was  completed,  by  laying  a  second  date  log 
parallel  with  the  first — a  quantity  of  camel's  thorn  being 
then  thrown  down  as  a  foundation,  and  loose  earth  placed 
on  the  top. 

When  all  were  safely  across,  we  soon  reached  the  large 
encampment  of  Mulla  'All,  whose  great  black  tents  spread 
along  the  bank  of  the  canal.  Our  arrival  was  the  signal 
for  the  gathering  of  a  crowd,  and  we  were  regarded 
somewhat  in  the  light  of  monkeys  or  dancing  dogs  in  a 
rural  English  village.  The  amazement  and  curiosity  of 
the  Arab  community  was  great  while  they  pmved  the 
strange  garments  of  the  Firenghis,  and  expressed  odd 
notions  concerning  their  make  and  fabric.  The  little 
naked  children  seemed  to  partake  of  the  general  excite- 
ment. After  a  steady  survey  of  a  few  seconds,  the  youth- 
ful fry,  with  their  stomachs  swelled  to  deformity  from 
eating  rice,  and  their  mouths  besmeared  with  dates, 
scampered  off  to  relate  their  impressions  to  their  mothers, 
who>  afraid  of  the  evil  eye,  scrutinized  our  persons  and 
movements  from  behind  the  recesses  of  their  tents. 

Having  a  long  journey  before  us,  we  did  not  dismount : 
in  fact,  it  was  useless  to  do  so  ;  the  sheikh  being  a  very 
old  man,  and  on  the  point  of  death.     I  therefore  merely 


SHEIKH  SAID's  tent.  05 

requested  that  a  guide  might  accompany  us  to  the  next 
encampment  on  the  road  to  Niffar.  In  due  time  four 
Arabs  were  added  to  the  party,  and  we  travelled  onwards 
to  the  camp  of  Sheikh  Said.  In  the  east,  at  the  distance 
of  about  ten  miles,  a  great  mass  of  unbaked  brickwork, 
the  ancient  mound  of  Zibliyya,"''''  shone  brightly  against 
the  setting  sun. 

Darkness  overtook  the  party  before  arriving  at  the 
camp  of  the  sheikh,  conveniently  situated  near  the  tomb 
of  an  imam,  on  the  verge  of  the  great  Affej  marshes.  The 
sheikh  himself,  a  tall,  stout,  short-necked  buU  of  a  fellow, 
with  a  decided  enlargement  of  one  eye,  which  gave  a  very 
sinister  expression  to  his  countenance,  advanced  to  the 
entrance  of  his  tent  to  bid  us  welcome,  and  invited  us  to 
take  a  seat  at  his  fire  while  our  own  tents  were  being 
pitched.  We  were  accordingly  ushered  in.  Two  exceed- 
ingly greasy  pillows  of  striped  silk  were  placed  on  an 
equally  dirty  fragment  of  Turkey  carpet,  and  we  were 
duly  installed  into  the  seats  of  honour.  As  we  entered, 
fresh  fuel  was  added  to  the  blazing  fire  upon  the  ground, 
producing  a  smoke  so  dense,  that  our  eyes,  not  having 
served  an  apprenticeship  in  such  an  atmosphere,  were 
completely  blinded,  and  we  remained  for  some  time  in 
utter  ignorance  of  the  sort  of  den  we  were  in.  When  at 
length  my  vision  had  in  some  measure  overcome  the  pun- 
gency of  the  smoke  and  penetrated  through  its  density, 
I  discovered  that  we  sat  under  a  huge  black  goats'-hair 
tent,  sixty  feet  long  and  twenty  feet  broad,  supported  in 
the  centre  by  poles  fourteen  feet  high.  The  sides  were 
all  pegged  closely  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  only  means 

*  I  likewise  visited  Ziblij^a  in  1854.  It  appears  to  be  an  edifice,  measur- 
ing forty-four  paces  square  at  the  base,  and  fifty  feet  high,  raised  upon  a 
low  mound  of  similar  construction.  From  the  relics  discovered  around,  it 
probably  belongs  to  the  Parthian  era,  Mr  Layard  visited  Zibliyya  in  1851, 
— the  year  following  the  journey  above  described, — and  it  is  mentioned  at 
page  569  of  his  "  Nineveh  and  Babylon." 


86  ARAB  LEVEE. 

of  exit  for  tlie  smoke  were  through  the  entrance  and  the 
wide  meshes  of  the  tent  itself.  Eather  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  space  was  partitioned  off  by  a  screen  of  the 
same  black  stuff.  This  was  the  private  apartment  of  the 
sheikh  and  his  family,  although  I  could  perceive  no  bright 
eyes  of  Araby  maids  peering  at  us  from  behind  it.  As 
soon  as  our  seats  were  taken,  numerous  dusky  forms 
stalked  in,  made  a  haughty  salaam,  and  took  their  several 
places  in  silence  on  the  ground  around  the  fire.  It  was 
impossible  to  resist  a  smile  as  we  surveyed  the  group  and 
observed  ourselves  to  be  the  focus  of  their  attraction.  A 
hundred  black  eyes,  with  every  expression  from  utter 
astonishment  to  utter  rascality,  stared  at  us  uninter- 
ruptedly, from  fifty  heads,  stretched  forward  from  the 
bodies  to  which  they  severally  belonged,  the  better  to 
examine  our  strange  physiognomies  and  still  stranger 
garments.  Each  soon  began  to  make  personal  remarks 
in  a  whisper  to  his  neighbour,  or  expressed  them  openly 
for  the  benefit  of  the  assembled  divan.  Never  had  I 
before  seen  such  a  levee  of  savages — ^411  any,  deceit,  and 
crime  appeared  to  be  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
their  features.  This  is  the  result  of  oppression.  How 
different  were  these  Madan  Arabs  from  the  free  and 
noble  Bedouin,  who  treats  the  Turkish  pasha  as  an 
equal ! 

My  first  visit  to  a  large  Arab  tent  prepossessed  me  in 
favour  neither  of  Arab  cleanliness  nor  of  Arab  hospitality, 
as  the  event  will  shew.  In  due  time  there  appeared  a 
nearly  naked  black  slave,  with  legs  and  arms  so  leng-thy 
and  disproportioned  that  he  might  have  been  a  resusci- 
tated figure  from  the  temples  of  Eameses  or  Amenophis ! 
Stalking  up  to  the  fire,  he  commenced  the  important 
operation  of  preparing  coffee.  He  first  arranged  in  line  a 
series  of  coffee-pots,  of  every  size  from  the  great  grand- 
father of  coffee-pots,  black  with   age   and  fire,  to  the 


COFFEE-MAKING.  87 

infant  coffee-pot  just  made,  and  bright  from  the  hands  of 
the  tinman.  Then  came  the  pater-familias — a  huge  old 
fellow,  wrapped  up  in  the  most  careful  manner  in  an  old 
piece  of  abba  stuff.  As  the  kawaji  unwound  the  nume- 
rous dirty  folds,  I  was  at  a  loss  to  conceive  the  meaning 
of  all  this  care,  but  it  eventually  proved  that  pater- 
familias was  the  receptax?le  into  which  were  collected  the 
dregs  and  leavings  of  all  the  great  coffee  drinkings  of  the 
Kerbiil  tribe  from  time  immemorial.  This  was  placed 
on  the  fire,  and  the  operator,  in  the  most  theatrical 
manner,  then  bared  his  arms  and  legs,  tucked  his  abba 
under  him,  and  commenced  the  scientific  process  of  roast- 
ing and  pounding.  A  large  iron  utensil,  having  some 
relationship  to  a  gigantic  spoon  on  three  legs,  was  next 
produced,  and  also  put  upon  the  fire.  The  negro  then 
thrust  his  hand  into  some  inscrutable  corner  of  his  robe 
and  drew  forth  a  small  bag,  from  which  he  extracted 
two  handfuls  of  coffee-berries,  looking  round  at  the  same 
time,  as  much  as  to  say,  "  You  observe  they're  genuine 
Mocha  !"  These  he  threw  into  the  capacious  spoon,  and 
continually  turned  them  over  with  a  flat  shovel  until  the 
aromatic  flavour,  permeating  through  the  tent  to  the  olfac- 
tories of  every  person  present,  pronounced  them  to  be 
duly  roasted.  Then  the  berries  were  pounded  in  a  wooden 
mortar  with  a  copper  pestle — and  here  it  was  that  the 
negro  exhibited  his  skill,  as  he  rang  out  various  notes  in 
the  most  scientific  and  artistic  manner  from  the  rude 
instruments  on  which  he  performed.  When  sufiiciently 
pulverized,  the  coffee  was  confided  to  the  great  grand- 
father of  pots,  and  a  quantity  of  the  delectable  fluid 
above  mentioned  was  poured  upon  it.  Then  all  the 
family  of  coffee-pots  took  their  turn  at  boiling  it  until 
the  infant  in  his  juvenile  brightness  had  performed  his 
part,  and  the  negro  skeleton  advanced  to  present  a  cup 
of  the  beverage  for  my  consideration. 


88  USE  OF  MEDICINE. 

The  behaviour  of  the  sheikh  was,  however,  so  extraor- 
dinar}'-  during  all  the  above  process,  that  it  was  evident 
we  were  not  welcome  guests.  From  the  time  of  our  arrival, 
he  kept  giving  a  continued  succession  of  orders  to  his  ser- 
vants, in  an  unpleasant  manner  and  flustering  voice,  turning 
his  back  most  uncivilly  upon  his  guests,  and  scarcely  deign- 
ing to  answer  the  few  questions  which  were  addressed  to 
him.  In  order  to  shew  we  were  aware  of  his  incivility, 
and  also  oflended  by  it,  we  rose  when  the  coffee  was  handed, 
took  a  haughty  leave  of  the  astonished  sheikh,  and  retired 
to  our  tents,  which  were  by  that  time  ready  for  our  recep- 
tion. This  movement  had  the  desired  effect.  AVe  had 
scarcely  reached  our  tents  when,  as  anticipated,  the  sheikh 
followed.  He  was  received  very  coldly,  and  scarcely 
received  a  reply  to  his  oft-repeated  question — "  Wallah ! 
Beg,  what  is  the  matter  ? "  At  last  he  added,  "  I  hope 
you  are  not  off'ended.  I  should  not  have  treated  you  so 
ill,  but  I  did  not  understand  who  you  were ! "  He  then 
begged  us  to  forget  what  had  occurred,  and  to  take 
coffee  with  him,  which  was  brought  before  he  received  a 
reply.  Having  reduced  the  uncivil  fellow  to  reason,  it 
was  unnecessary  to  take  further  notice  of  the  intentional 
insult  we  had  received.  I  therefore  accepted  his  coffee ; 
after  which  he  became  communicative,  and  endeavoured 
to  make  himself  agreeable. 

He  was  not  long  in  asking  if  either  of  us  were  an 
hekim,  or  doctor,  and  if  we  possessed  any  medicine.  His 
gross  body  had  an  enormous  boil  on  an  indescribable 
portion  of  his  carcass,  for  which  he  required  some  remedy, 
and  begged  so  energetically,  that  I  at  length  agreed  to  give 
him  a  blue  pill  and  a  dose  of  rhubarb,  but  I  quite  forgot 
to  see  him  swallow  the  former.  Most  probably  it  was 
wrapped  in  a  dirty  rag,  and  laid  aside  among  his  treasures 
until  some  of  his  friends  might  be  ill,  when,  whether  the 
malady  were  fever  or  cholera,  a  spear  wound  or  dysentery, 


LED  A  DANCE.  89 

the  sheikh  would  produce  his  supposed  talisman  for  all 
ills,  and,  possibly,  kill  his  patient. 

As  to  our  visiting  Niffar,  he  recommended  our  going 
forward  to  the  next  encampment  of  the  Affej  tribe,  which 
was  nearer  to  the  ruins ;  but,  as  I  was  desirous  of  spending 
New  Year's  day  on  the  mounds,  I  endeavoured  to  persuade 
him  to  furnish  us  with  guides.  After  presenting  various 
obstacles,  he  at  length  agreed  that  his  son  and  four  horse- 
men should  accompany  us.  There  was  no  further  cause, 
for  the  night  at  least,  to  complain  of  incivility  or  want  of 
attention.  Ourselves,  servants,  and  animals  were  supplied 
with  every  requisite  which  an  Arab  camp  can  furnish. 

The  New  Year  of  1850  was  ushered  in  with  a  fog 
so  dense  that  the  sheikh  again  endeavoured  to  dissuade 
us  from  our  purpose,  but,  being  determined  on  the  sub- 
ject, we  started  as  arranged  overnight.  We  rode  for  about 
an  hour,  Avhile  the  sheikh's  son  continually  urged  me  to 
give  up  my  visit  till  another  opportunity,  and  I  began  to 
suspect  that  he  never  intended  we  should  reach  Niffar. 
I  was  at  length  confirmed  in  this  view  by  discovering  oui 
own  tracks  on  the  ground,  and  that  we  had  been  led 
a  complete  circuit  round  Sheikh  Said's  camp !  I  was 
naturally  highly  incensed  at  this  conduct,  and,  on  the 
guides  declaring  it  impossible  to  reach  the  ruins  and  return 
before  dark,  I  required  them  to  conduct  me  to  Shkyer, 
the  abode  of  a  sheikh  of  that  name,  brother  of  Aggab, 
chief  of  the  Affej.  I  had  afterwards  reason  to  know  that 
Sheikh  Said  was  at  feud  with  the  tribes  between  his  camp 
and  Niffar :  hence  his  great  unwillingness  to  aid  us  in 
visiting  the  ruins.  On  reaching  within  half  a  mile  ol 
Shkyer,  our  guides  left  us  to  introduce  ourselves  to  the 
amphibious  inhabitants  of  the  Affej  marshes. 

Hitherto  our  journey  had  been  through  the  districts  of 
the  Zobeid  Arabs  and  their  tributaries.  Their  chief,  who 
farmed  the  revenues  for  the  pasha,  boasted  of  a  Turkish 


90  THE  WADf  BEY. 

title  to  his  name,  and  was  called  the  Wadi  Bey.  In  con- 
sequence, however,  of  his  oppressive  conduct  and  extor- 
tionate demands,  the  tribes  over  whom  he  ruled — for  they 
included  others  besides  the  Zobeid — were  continually  in 
rebellion.  They  complained,  and  with  justice,  that  the 
Wadi  robbed  them  and  debauched  their  families,  leaving 
neither  food  nor  honour  for  themselves.  In  makino; 
known  their  complaints  to  the  pasha,  they  exclaimed, 
"Send  soldiers,  slay  us,  cut  off  our  heads,  we  will  not 
obey  him  any  longer."  In  consequence  of  these  com- 
plaints, the  Wadi  Bey  had  recently  been  deposed  by  Abdl 
Pasha,  and  was  then  in  prison  at  Miisseib  to  answer  the 
charges  brought  against  him.  It  was  generally  under- 
stood that  the  pasha  intended  taking  the  government  of 
the  tribes  into  his  own  hands — an  arrangement  which 
appeared  to  be  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  iU-used  Arabs. 
Great  jealousy  and  mistrust  reigned,  however,  amoiig  the 
various  neighbouring  tribes  during  the  interregnum,  and 
it  was  on  this  accomit  that  the  son  of  Sheikh  Said  refused 
to  accompany  us  into  the  village  of  Shkyer.  Before  reach- 
ing it,  we  experienced  the  awkwardness  of  travelling 
among  marshes.  Our  animals  were  slipping  and  sliding 
about,  out  of  one  buffalo  track  into  another,  and  had  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  keeping  on  their  feet.  An  hour's 
scrambling  in  this  way  at  length  brought  us  to  the  village, 
where  we  were  honourably  and  hos]3itably  received  by 
the  aged  Sheikh  Shkyer  and  his  numerous  sons. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Tlie  Mighty  Marsh — The  Reed- Palace — Shooting-Match — NifFar — 
Theory  on  the  Chaldajans — Probable  Ethiopic  Origin  —  Niifar  the 
Primitive  Calneh,  and  Probable  Site  of  the  Tower  of  Babel — BenI 
Rechab,  the  Rechabites  of  Scripture. 

We  had  now  reached  tlie  commencement  of  those 
immense  marshes  which  extend  almost  uninterruptedly 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  which,  as  I  have  previously  said, 
cause  the  country  under  their  influence  to  be  a  complete 
terra  incognita.  The  swamps  occupied  by  the  AfFej 
Arabs  stretch,  during  the  low  season,  from  the  Euphrates 
on  the  west,  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Jezireh,  and  in 
some  places  even  join  those  of  the  Tigris.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  state  their  area ;  but  it  is  calculated  that  they 
support  a  population  of  3000  families,  who  pay  an  annual 
tribute  of  100,000  piastres  (above  £900)  to  the  Pasha  of 
Baghdad.  Abdi  Pasha,  however,  thinking  they  were  able 
to  bear  a  considerable  increase  of  taxation,  proposed  to 
double  the  above  sum  for  the  following  year.  The  AfFej 
were  in  no  small  state  of  fermentation  and  alarm — com- 
plaining bitterly  of  the  treatment  they  had  at  various 
times  received  from  the  authorities  of  Baghdad.  Nedjib 
Pasha  had  thrice  blown  their  fragile  towns  about  their 
ears  with  cannon.  These  consist  entirely  of  reed  huts, 
the  reeds  being  tied  in  large  bundles,  and  neatly  arched 
overhead.  This  primitive  construction  is  covered  exter- 
nally with  thick  matting,  impervious  to  rain.     The  riches 


92  THE  MtJTHfF. 

of  the  AfFej  are  indicated  by  rows  of  huge  reed  cylin- 
drical baskets,  containing  the  grain  npon  which  they 
subsist.  Rice  is  produced  in  great  almndance  along  the 
edges  of  the  marsh ;  but  the  whole  of  their  fields  were, 
at  the  season  of  our  visit  and  for  a  third  of  the  year, 
entirely  under  water.  Communication  is  kept  up,  as  on 
the  marshes  of  the  Hiudieh,  by  means  of  long,  sharp, 
pointed  terradas,  constructed  of  teak,  and  measuring 
twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long,  by  a  yard  in  width.  The 
Affej  tribe  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  governed 
by  two  brothers,  Aggab  and  Shkyer — the  former  being 
the  accredited  head  of  the  whole. 

We  were  conducted  to  the  miithif,  or  reception-hut  of 
the  chief,  which  resembled  the  other  habitations  of  the 
place,  but  was  of  gigantic  size,  forty  feet  long,  and  eighteen 
feet  high.  It  boasted  the  almost  fabulous  age  for  a  reed 
building  (if  the  Arabs  might  he  credited)  of  no  less  than 
half  a  century,  and  appeared  likely  to  last  as  long  again, 
but  its  interior  was  black  with  soot  and  smoke  from  the 
fire  which  invariably  burned  under  the  arch,  and  had  no 
means  of  exit  but  the  entrance  facinsf  the  marsh.  After 
sitting  a  short  time  in  this  primitive  jDalace,  the  sheikh 
himself,  an  old  man  of  seventy  on  crutches,  came  to  wel- 
come us ;  three  of  his  sons  having,  in  the  interim,  done 
the  honours  of  hospitality.  The  manly  and  open  counte- 
nances of  the  Affej  are  remarkably  striking,  and  differ  so 
much  from  those  of  the  Zobeid  that  they  are  at  once  pro- 
nounced to  be  of  another  origin.  Their  rich  scarlet  dresses 
— for  the  Affej  are  great  dandies — and  brightly  striped 
keffiehs  produced  a  remarkably  brilliant  and  gay  scene  as 
they  sat  with  their  backs  against  the  sides  of  the  long 
muthif.  The  manners  of  the  Affej  are  much  more  prepos- 
sessing and  polished  than  the  other  tribes  of  the  Jezlreh. 

In  approaching  the  reed  town,  along  the  edge  of  the 
marsh,  my  companion  had  dismounted  to  shoot  a  fran- 


M(JBAREE.  93 

colin,  and  his  fame  as  a  flying-sliot  spread  far  and  near. 
Such  a  prodigy  had  never  before  been  seen  among  the 
AfFej  marshes.  The  double-barrelled  gun  was  handed 
round  the  muthif,  and  examined  amid  exclamations  of 
surjjrise  and  delight  ;  but  the  percussion  caps  were  a 
complete  puzzle  to  the  whole  assemblage.  The  springs  of 
the  powder-flask  and  shot-belt  were  equally  a  source  of 
astonishment.  A  shooting-match  was  proposed  ;  and 
shortly  afterwards,  Churchill  and  Mohammed,  the  sheikh's 
eldest  son,  were  skimming  about  on  the  marsh  in  a  narrow 
terrada,  the  depth  of  the  water  generally  not  exceeding 
three  feet.  The  En2;lishman  fired  six  times  to  the  Arab's 
once,  amidst  rounds  of  applause  an^d  loud  clapping  of 
hands.  The  powder  and  shot  of  the  latter  were  separately 
weighed  in  a  rude  scale,  from  one  end  of  which  was  sus- 
pended a  piece  of  lead,  and  from  the  other  a  hollow  reed 
closed  at  one  extremity  ;  the  process  of  loading  his  heavy 
unwieldy  gun  was  therefore  long  and  tedious  ;  and  the 
result  of  his  day's  sport  anything  but  satisfactory  to  his 
self-esteem.  The  wondrous  performance  of  my  fellow- 
traveller  spread  far  and  near  ;  and,  four  years  afterwards, 
they  reminded  me  of  the  manner  in  which  he  brought 
down  the  flying  birds.  The  shooting-match  is  a  subject 
of  conversation  to  this  day. 

In  the  course  of  the  day  our  guide,  Miibarek,  who,  it 
will  be  remembered,  was  engaged  to  conduct  us  and 
secure  our  safety  during  the  journey,  was  recognized  by 
the  Arabs  couchins;  in  a  dark  corner  of  one  of  the  tents, 
as  a  Bedouin  thief,  notorious  for  stealing  by  night.  His 
tribe,  too,  was  at  blood-feud  with  the  Aflej.  Had  it  not 
been  that  he  was  attached  to  my  party,  his  life  would 
have  paid  the  penalty  of  his  temerity  in  venturing  among 
his  enemies.  Well  knowing  this,  he  did  not  therefore 
dare  to  shew  his  face  outside  the  tent  all  the  time  of  my 
stay  at  Shkyer. 


94  DIFFICULTIES. 

It  is  altogether  beyond  the  comprehension  of  an  Arab 
that  a  person  should  travel  several  days  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  gratifying  his  curiosity  by  the  sight  of  an 
ancient  mound — they  are  always  under  the  impression 
that  a  search  for  treasure  is  the  true  but  concealed  object; 
and  it  is  next  to  an  utter  impossibility  to  shake  this 
belief. 

From  some  cause  or  other,  the  ruins  of  Niffar  appear 
to  be  an  object  of  peculiar  dread  to  the  Arabs  ;  the 
inhabitants  of  Shkyer  exhibited  the  same  disinclina- 
tion to  accompany  us  as  Sheikh  Said's  people  had  pre- 
viously done.  Before  quitting  Baghdad,  I  had  been 
warned  that  difficulties  of  every  kind  would  be  thrown 
in  my  way,  and  that  I  should  be  very  fortunate  in  suc- 
ceeding. After  a  long  conversation  to  no  purpose,  I 
declared  my  determination  to  set  out  for  Niffar  alone,  if 
the  sheikh  would  not  oblige  me  by  sending  a  guide.  It 
was  thereon  arranged  that  his  second  son,  Biilath,  and 
a  few  horsemen  of  the  tribe,  should  be  ready  at  day- 
dawn. 

AVe  were  up  betimes  on  the  foUoAving  morning,  but 
the  promised  escort  was  by  no  means  ready.  It  was  then 
for  the  first  time  explained  that  the  whole  tribe  could  not 
muster  more  than  three  horses — buffaloes  they  had  in 
plenty,  but  they  were  not  available  for  such  a  ride  as  was 
before  us.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  accommodate 
them  with  our  own  animals ;  and  at  length,  after  consi- 
derable delay,  the  party  started  from  the  village.  The 
expedition  consisted  of  ourselves,  young  Sheikh  Biilath, 
two  servants,  six  BashI  Bazuks,  and  six  Arabs.  The 
road  being,  as  a  matter  of  course,  pronounced  insecure, 
we  Avere  armed  to  the  teeth,  and  might  easily  have  been 
mistaken  for  a  plundering  party,  instead  of  antiquarians 
on  our  way  to  visit  an  old  ruined  city.  Once  free  from 
the  mud  and  water  of  the  marshes,  we  hastened  over  the 


THE  NIL.  95 

plain  at  a  merry  rate,  in  order  to  have  time  at  the  mounds. 
We  were  assured  that  the  way  was  long,  and  truly  so  we 
found  it.  In  order  to  avoid  the  marsh  on  the  south  of 
us,  it  was  necessary  to  make  a  detour  of  at  least  seven- 
teen miles.  Several  considerable  mounds,  and  various 
old  canals,  were  crossed — one  of  which,  bearing  directly 
from  Zibliyya,  was  of  considerable  size,  and  must  have 
been  a  main  stream.  It  was  called  Derb-el-Jababara,"* 
or  "the  Giant's  road."  The  Euphrates  is  described  by 
the  Arab  historian,  Abiil-Fedah,  as  in  his  time  striking 
off  from  the  modern  channel  immediately  above  the 
mound  of  B4bel  at  Babylon.  Its  sunken  bed  may  still 
be  traced  on  the  west  of  the  red  pile  of  El  Heimar,  which 
some  authors  include  within  the  circumference  of  the 
great  city  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Its  course  terminated  in 
the  Tigris  above  Kilt-el-'Amara,  the  ancient  Apamea.  A 
main  artery,  derived  from  the  old  Euphrates  near  the 
city  of  Niliyya,  flowed  southwards  towards  Niffar.  Its 
channel  is  now,  how^ever,  lost  in  the  marshes  at  the  base  of 
the  mounds,  but  is  again  traceable  near  Warka.  The  waters 
had  but  recently  retired  from  the  surface  of  the  desert, 
and  our  horses  sank  deep  into  the  soft  and  yielding  soil.t 
On  approaching  a  hollow  among  the  iniins,  we  came 
suddenly  upon  two  or  three  Zobeid  shepherds  and  their 
flocks,  who,  notwithstanding  the  assurance  of  our  friendly 
disposition,  made  a  precipitate  retreat  to  their  distant 
tents. 

As  Niffar  is  supposod  to  stand  upon  the  northern  con- 
fines of  Chaldoea,  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  give 

*  The  word  "  jabbar,"  or  "  giant."  is  the  particular  title  used  in  the 
Hebrew  Scripture  as  applied  to  Nimrod.  The  name  occurring  at  Niffar  is 
an  additional  reason  why  the  reputed  antiquity  of  the  site  should  be  re- 
garded as  authentic. 

t  The  best  approach  to  Niffar  is  from  the  Tigris,  on  which  side  the 
ground  is  firm  ;  but  the  distance  is  great,  and  the  desert  entirely  with- 
out water.  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  I  believe,  twice  visited  Niffar  from  that 
direction,  and  placed  it  in  latitude  32°  7'  3"  N. 


96  THE  CHALD.EANS. 

briefly  an  account  of  its  early  inhabitants,  and  their 
origin — as  ftir,  at  least,  as  our  present  knowledge  con- 
cernino;  them  will  admit  of.  The  Chaldaeans  are  alluded 
to  in  the  Bible  under  various  conflicting  denominations. 
At  one  time  they  are  spoken  of  as  colonists  ; "'  at  another 
as  priests  and  astrologers  ;  t  and,  lastly,  as  a  conquering 
nation  from  the  north.J;  Hence  has  arisen  a  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  who  and  what  they  were. 

The  recent  researches  made  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  primitive  cuneiform  inscriptions  have  led  to  the  not 
inconsistent  belief,  that,  in  the  earliest  ages  previous  to 
the  historic  period  (which  commenced  with  the  empire  oi 
Nimrod),  the  region  on  the  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf  was 
probably  inhabited  by  a  Semitic  race,  which  was  gra- 
dually dispossessed  by  a  powerful  stream  of  invasion  or 
colonization  from  the  south.  The  Hamitic  or  Scythic 
element,  which  prevails  in  the  most  ancient  cimeiform 
records  throughout  Babylonia  and  Susiana,  points  to 
Ethiopia  as  the  mother  country  of  the  new  settlers. 
They  appear  to  have  crossed  the  Red  Sea  and  the  penin- 
sula of  Arabia,  leaving  traces  of  their  migration  along 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.     In  the  lano-uao;e  of  the 

CD         O 

inscriptions,  they  are  called  "Akkadim" — a  name  pre- 
served in  one  of  their  cities,  the  Accad  of  Genesis — and 
their  first  settlements  are  concluded  to  have  been  Erech 
and  Ur,  the  modern  sites  of  which  are  represented  by 
the  ruins  of  AVarka  and  Miigeyer.  The  existence  of  a 
Hamite  race  in  this  region  is  confirmed  by  Herodotus,§ 
who  distinguishes  the  Eastern  Ethiopians  of  Asia  from 
the  Western  Ethiopians  of  Africa  by  the  straight  hair  of 
the  former  and  the  ciu-ly  hair  of  the  latter.  Homer  I| 
speaks  of  them  as  "a  divided  race — the  last  of  men — 

•  Genesis  xi.  31  ;  xii.  1-4  ;  xv.  7.        t  Daniel  i.  4  ;  ii.  2  ;  iv.  7  ;  v.  7-11. 
X  Jer.  X.  22  ;  Hab.  i.  6,  &c.  §  Book  vii.  69,  70. 

II  Odyss.,  i.  22. 


THEORY  RESPECTING  THE  CHALDEANS.  97 

some  of  them  at  the  extreme  west,  and  others  at  the 
extreme  east."  Memupii,  who  aided  Priam  against  the 
Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  is  mentioned  as  an  Ethiopian ; 
but  his  seat  of  empire  was  at  Siisa,  which  was  called, 
after  him,  "  the  Memnonium." 

In  the  name  of  Kudur-Mapida,  who  had  the  title  of 
"  ravager  of  Syria,"  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  identifies  the 
Chcdorlaomer  of  Scripture.""'  In  his  father's  name,  Smti- 
Shil-Khcd',  and  in  that  of  Tirhhak  on  the  Susa  records, 
the  last  element,  khah,  is  in  all  probability  the  hak  or  hyc 
of  the  shepherd-kings  who  overran  Lower  Egypt  B.C. 
2084. 

These  coincidences  are,  to  say  the  least,  very  extra- 
ordinary, and  certainly  denote  a  common  origin  between 
the  Chald^eans  of  Scripture  and  the  Eastern  Ethiopians. 

At  this  distance  of  time  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to 
define  the  original  limits  of  Chaldsea,  but  it  seems  probable 
that,  from  a  minute  settlement  at  first,  the  dominion  of 
the  Chaldees  extended  over  the  lower  plains  of  the  great 
rivers  into  the  mountains  of  Elymais  and  Media,  Hamitic 
dialects  being  recognised  in  the  rock  inscriptions  of  Mai 
Amir  in  Persia,  westward  to  ]\Ialatia  in  the  centre  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  as  far  north  as  the  lakes  of  Van  and 
Uriimia. 

With  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian  power  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  B.C.,  the  Semitic  races  appear  to  have  in 
turn  gained  the  ascendency,  and  spread  over  the  low 
countries  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  language  gradually 
acquired  a  Semitic  character,  but  still  maintained  an  ad- 
mixture of  Hamitic  roots.  Into  the  mountainous  region, 
however,  the  Semites  found  difiiculty  in  penetrating,  and 
it  is  doubtless  to  the  Hamites  stiU  dwelling  there,  retain- 
ing an  their  warlike  propensities,  and  constituting  the 
flower  of  the  Babylonian  army,  that  the  Jewnsh  Scriptures 

*  Genesis  xiv. 

o 


98  THE  CUNEIFORM  CHARACTER. 

refer  when  tlioy  say,  "  I  will  bring  evil  from  the  north, 
and  a  great  destruction,""  meaning  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  "king  of  the  Chaldees/'t 

But  it  is  in  a  more  restricted  sense  that  Isaiah;];  alludes 
to  "  the  Chaldeans,  whose  cry  is  in  their  ships" — a  people 
of  aquatic  habits  and  maritime  position,  agreeing  well 
with  the  descriptions  given  by  Ptolemy  §  and  Strabo,  ||  of 
a  people  bordering  on  Arabia  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
into  the  marshes  of  whose  territories,  according  to  Pliny,  If 
the  Tigris  emptied  itself  in  its  course  to  the  sea.  From 
these  authorities  we  are  led  to  conclude,  that  Chaldsea 
Proper  extends  from  about  the  latitude  of  Hillah  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  md  from  the  verge  of  the  great  Arabian 
deserts  on  the  u^est,  across  the  plains  and  marshes  of  the 
M(isopotamian  rivers,  to  the  parallel  of  Hawiza  on  the 
confines  of  ancient  Susiana. 

With  regard  to  the  language  of  this  early  people, 
whether  we  call  them  Hamites,  Scyths,  or  Chaldees,  I 
cannot  do  better  than  quote  from  the  writer  of  an  inte- 
resting article  in  a  recent  periodical :'""'' — 

"  They  were  in  reality  the  inventors  of  the  cuneiform 
chairacter,  having  first  made  rude  pictures  of  natural 
objects,  after  the  manner  of  hieroglyphs,  w^hich  in  pro- 
cess of  time  assumed  the  form  of  letters,  possessing  a 
phonetic  power,  and  having  some  correspondence  with 
the  title  of  the  original  object  which  they  were  intended 
to  represent.  It  seems  likely  that  this  alphabet  had  been 
in  use  at  least  a  thousand  yeai:s  before  it  was  employed 
to  represent  the  sounds  of  a  language  like  the  Assyrian, 
differing  wholly  in  structure  and  character  from  that  for 
which  it  was  originally  invented.  Hence  it  happened, 
that  ^vhen  the  Semitic  people  began  to  make  this  use  of 

•  Jer.  iv.  6.  t  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17.  +  Chap,  xliii.  14. 

§  Book  vi.  20.  II  Book  i.  4.  H  Book  vi.  27. 

**  Notice  of  Colonel  Kawlinson's  researches  in  "  The  Monthly  Review  of 
Literature,  Science,  and  Art,"  vol.  i.  page  45. 


CHALD.EAN  ASTRONOMY.  99 

it,  they  found  it  necessary  to  retain  the  old  Scythic  values 
of  tlie  letters,  and  therefore  only  modified  the  existing 
alphabet  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  to  each  character 
the  power  which  belonged  to  the  Semitic  synonym  for 
the  original  Scythic  term."  Tlie  science  of  Assyria,  even 
to  the  latest  times,  appears  to  have  been  recorded  in  the 
old  Haniite  language,  so  that  the  acquisition  of  tliis 
tongue  was  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of  Assyrian 
education. 

At  the  present  day,  it  is  well  knoT\Ti  there  are  some 
tribes  in  the  highlands  of  Kurdistan  called  Kaldani,  or 
Chaldseans,  who  profess  Christianity,  and  are  a  brave, 
hardy  race.  One  theory  concerning  their  origin  is,  that 
they  are  the  descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Chaldsea,  who  were  driven  into  those  fastnesses  by  the 
after-spread  of  the  Semitic  races."'' 

The  original  colonists  are,  it  is  supposed,  alluded  to  by 
Moses  under  the  name  of  "Nimrod,"  which  signifies 
"  those  who  are  found,"  or,  "  the  settlers."  Their  Hamitic 
descent  is  confirmed  by  the  application  of  the  name  Cush 
(the  father  of  Nimrod),  under  various  modifications,  to 
difierent  sites  in  the  territory  north  and  east  of  Baby- 
lonia— for  instance,  Shiish,  Ciitha,  Kushasdan,  Shuster, 
Cossoea,  &c. 

The  frequent  jnention  of  the  Chaldseans  as  priests  and 
astrologers  may  be  accounted  for  by  their  having  brought 
with  them,  in  their  migration,  a  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
at  that  time  far  advanced  in  Egypt.     Hence  it  was  that 

*  The  various  theories  advanced  concerning  the  Chaldceans  have  been  so 
frequently  quoted  in  other  recent  works,  that  I  refrain  from  a  repetition  of 
them  in  this  volume.  The  reader  may,  therefore,  be  referred  to  Baillie 
Fraser's  "  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria,"  and  Vaux's  valuable  resume  of  mo- 
dern discoveries,  entitled  "  Nineveh  and  Persepolis."  The  discussion  in 
detail  will  be  found  in  Faber's  "Origin  of  Pagan  Idolatry,"  Beke's  "Origines 
Biblicse,"  Bochart's  "  Geographia  Sacra,"  Dr  Grant's  "  Lost  Tribes,"  and 
Ainsworth's  reply,  Michaelis'  "  Specim.  Gcograph.  Ilebrseor.  Ext.,"  Layard's 
"  Nineveh,"  &c.  &c. 


100  NIFFAR. 

thei'e  existed  at  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  a  record  of  eclipses  which  had  taken  place  from  the 
year  2234  B.C.'"' — a  date  nearly  corresponding  with  that 
assigned  to  the  commencement  of  Nimrod's  empire  as 
given  in  the  marginal  references  of  onr  Scriptures.  We 
are  also  told  by  Strabo,t  that  the  Chaldoeans  had  two 
schools  for  the  study  of  astronomy ;  whence  the  learned 
men  were  called  Borsippeni  and  Orchoeni. 

A  further  proof  of  the  Egyptian  origin  of  the  Chal- 
dees  is  derived  from  the  fact,  that,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  lunar  year,  they  made  use  of  a  solar  one  for  as- 
tronomical purposes,  w^hich  was  divided,  after  the  manner 
of  the  Egyptians,  into  monthly  sections.  The  adoration 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  we  know  to  have  prevailed 
among  the  Hamite  tribes,  appears  to  have  introduced  a 
system  of  polytheism  among  the  Semites,  whose  religion 
in  its  primitive  state  consisted  in  the  worship  of  one 
supreme  and  omniscient  Creator.  This  subject  is  not, 
however,  one  for  me  to  investigate. 

It  may  not  l)e  uninteresting  at  this  point  to  state  the 
opinion  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  on  the  important  ruins  ol 
Niffar.  He  considers  that  "  the  names  of  the  eight  primeval 
cities,  preserved  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  are  not 
intended  to  denote  capitals  then  actually  built  and  named, 
but  rather  to  point  out  the  localities  where  the  first  colo- 
nies were  established  by  titles  which  became  famous 
under  the  empire,  and  which  were  thus  alone  familiar  to 
the  Jews."  He  regards  the  site  of  Nifiar  as  the  primitive 
Calneh — the  capital  of  the  whole  region.  It  was  dedi- 
cated to  Belus,  and  was  called  the  city  of  Belus.  Hence 
he  concludes  that  this  Avas  the  true  site  of  the  Tower  of 
Babel ;  and  that  from  it  originated  the  Babylon  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  at  Hillah.  The 
existing  remains  were  built  by  the  earliest  king  of  whom 

*  On  the  authority  of  Ecrosus,  +  Book  xvi.  739. 


RUINS  OP  NIFFAR.  101 

we  have  any  cuneiform  monuments,  about  2300  B.C.,  but 
whose  name  cannot  be  read  with  certainty.  It  was  then 
called  Tel  Ann,  from  the  god  Anu,  our  scriptural  Noah, 
who  was  worshipped  there  under  the  form  of  tjhe  Fish 
God  Cannes,  of  whom  we  have  representations  on  -the 
bas-reliefs  of  Nineveh  ;  the  name  Niffar  "was '.  saUst-- 
quently  given  to  it.  The  old  titles  were  retained  when 
the  Talmud  was  composed,  the  writers  of  which  say  that 
Calneh  was  Niffar,  and  they  call  the  place  Nineveh  ;  but 
the  Nineveh  of  Assyria  was  certainly  at  Mobul — "Out 
of  that  land  went  forth  Ashur  and  builded  Nineveh."  ^'' 

The  present  aspect  of  Niffar  is  that  of  a  lofty  platform 
of  earth  and  rubbish,  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts 
by  a  deep  channel — apparently  the  bed  of  a  river — about 
120  feet  wide.  Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  this  j)latform  are  the  remains  of  a  brick  tower  of 
early  construction,  the  debris  of  which  constitutes  a  conical 
mound  rising  seventy  feet  above  the  plain.  This  is  a 
conspicuous  object  in  the  distance,  and  exhibits,  where 
the  brick-work  is  exposed,  oblong  perforations  similar  to 
those  seen  at  the  Birs  Nimrud,  and  other  edifices  of  the 
Babylonian  age.  The  western  division  of  the  platform 
has  no  remarkable  feature,  except  that  it  is  strewed  with 
fragments  of  pottery,  and  other  relics  of  a  later  period 
than  the  tower  above  alluded  to.  At  the  distance  of  a 
few  hundred  yards  on  the  east  of  the  ruins,  may  be  dis- 
tinctly traced  a  low  continuous  mound — the  remains, 
probably,  of  the  external  wall  of  the  ancient  city.  As  to 
the  obelisk,  the  particular  object  of  my  visit,  the  Arabs 
positively  declared  that  there  was  one,  but  none  of  them 
had  seen  it,  or  could  indicate  its  position  in  the  mounds. 

*  For  the  above  notices  on  the  origin  of  the  Chaldisans  and  early  history 
of  Niffar,  I  am  mainly  indebted  to  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's  numerous  me- 
moirs, contained  in  the  publications  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  in  the 
*'  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geogr.  Society  for  1856,"  p.  47,  and  pages  of  the 
"  Athenaeum." 


102  BENf  KECHAB. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  at  greater  length  on  these 
ruins,  because  Mr  Layard  has  given  a  detailed  account 
of  his  researches  there  in  1851.'"'  I  myself  visited  Niffar 
asecoYid  time  in  1854,  when  his  trenches  were  scarcely 
recognizable — in  a  year  or  two  more  they  will  be  entirely 
filled  vp  Avith  drifted  sand.  Although  no  very  remarkable 
discovery  has  yet  been  made  at  Niffar,  it  cannot  be 
regarded  as  thoroughly  exj^lored  ;  and  the  extensive  area 
of  the  ruins  encourages  the  hope  that  at  some  future 
period  excavations  may  be  successfully  resumed. 

On  the  west  and  south  of  Niffar  there  extends  a  region 
of  marshes,  hitherto  unvisited — a  complete  chain  of  natural 
defences  for  the  wild  Madan  Arabs,  who  dwell  among 
them  upon  the  slightly  elevated  ridges  which  at  inter- 
vals raise  their  heads  above  the  inundation.  It  is  entirely 
owing  to  the  presence  of  these  swamps  that  the  tribes 
in  the  interior  are  so  little  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turkish  Government.  Joining  to  the  Affej  district  are 
the  territories  of  the  BenI  Eechab,t  whose  independent 
chief,  named  the  Amir  or  Prince,  claims  descent  from  the 
original  possessors  of  the  soil.  He  is  the  sworn  ally  of 
the  great  Muntefik  sheikh  ;  and  when  that  tribe  is  at  war, 
the  followers  of  the  Amir,  with  their  long  muskets,  fight 
side  by  side  with  those  of  the  modern  King  of  the  Arabs. 
The  Beni  Eechab  are  a  remarkable  race,  and  in  them  we 
may  probably  recognize  the  descendants  of  the  Bechab- 
ites,  who,  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim,  King  of  Judah,  were 
made  an  example  to  the  Jews  of  a  people  who,  unlike  the 
chosen  race,  obeyed  the  precepts  of  their  forefathers. 
When  wine  was  placed  before  them  in  the  temple  by 
Jeremiah,  they  refused  to  partake  of  it,  saying,  "  Thus 
have  we  obeyed  the  voice  of  Jonadab  the  son  of  Bechab 
our    father    in  all    that   he    charged   us,    to   drink    no 

*  "  Nineveh  and  BaTt)ylon,"  chap.  xxiv. 
t  Literally,  "  sons  of  the  stirrvip." 


THE  EECHABITES.  103 

\yine  all  our  days,  we,  our  wives,  our  sons,  nor  our 
daughters ;  nor  to  build  houses  for  us  to  dwell  in  : 
neither  have  we  vineyard,  nor  field,  nor  seed  :  but  we 
have  dwelt  in  tents,  and  have  obeyed,  and  done  accord- 
ino-  to  all  that  Jonadab  our  father  commanded  us.     But 

o 

it  came  to  pass,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  Babylon 
came  up  into  the  land,  that  we  said.  Come,  and  let  us  go 
to  Jerusalem  for  fear  of  the  army  of  the  Chaldeans,  and 
for  fear  of  the  army  of  the  Syrians  :  so  we  dwell  at  Jeru- 
salem/' ■^'' 

It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  at  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  a  few  years  later,  the 
Eechabites  were  oblioed  to  follow  the  fallen  fortunes  of 

o 

their  allies  the  Jews,  and  that  the  Chaldsean  marshes 
were  assigned  to  them  as  a  residence  in  the  land  of  their 
conquerors,  t  Their  descendants  are  still  to  be  found  in 
the  same  locality,  but  instead  of  being  a  dependent,  they 
have  become  an  independent  race.  But  whatever  may 
have  been  the  result  of  their  intercourse  with  the  Jews, 
the  observance  of  their  ancient  customs  remains  un- 
chano-ed,  like  that  of  all  the  wild  Arab  hordes.  There  is 
not  sufficient  proof,  in  the  name  alone,  that  the  modem 
tribe  of  Beni  Rechab  are  the  Rechabites  of  the  Scriptures, 
but  the  tradition  of  their  early  possession  of  the  country, 
the  title  of  Amir  so  unusually  applied  to  an  Arab  chief 
of  this  region,  and  the  peculiarity  of  feature  which  distin- 
guishes the  tribe,  certainly  afford  some  ground  for  the 
opinion  here  advanced. 

The  Beni  Eechab  are  extremely  jealous  of  strangers,  as 
I  once  experienced,  and  it  is  not  safe  to  venture  among 
them  without  the  Amir's  protection.     In  countenance  they 

*  Jer.  XXXV.  8-11. 

t  Whether  these  Beni  Rechdb  are  related  to  the  tribe  of  the  same  name 
whom  the  Jewish  traveller,  Benjamin  of  Tuclela,  mentions  as  dwelling  in 
the  deserts  of  Yemen,  and  observing  the  precepts  of  the  Talmud,  I  am 
unable  to  say.    They  may  be  divisions  of  the  same  tribe. 


104  BISMYA  AND  PHARA. 

bear  a  strong  reseml)lance  to  the  Jews,  and  may  easily  be 
(iistinguislied  from  the  smTounding  Arab  tribes  ;  I  am  not 
aware,  however,  that  they  have  any  traditions  of  a  former 
connexion  with  the  Jewish  nation.  Unlike  their  affable 
neighbours  of  the  Affej,  they  are  sullen  and  morose,  un- 
willing to  give  information,  and  infinitely  more  addicted 
to  plunder  than  to  any  other  occupation.  The  sway  of 
the  Amir  extends  from  the  Aifej  southwards  to  near  the 
mounds  of  Hammam  hereafter  mentioned,  and  as  far 
east  as  the  Tigris,  along  the  banks  of  which  he  exacts 
black-mail  from  all  native  vessels  plying  between  Baghdad 
and  Busrah,  although  he  himself  pays  no  tribute  to  the 
Turkish  Government. 

Amouo-  the  marshes  of  the  Beni  Rechab  are  several 
important  ruins,  of  which  Bismya,  distant  about  twenty- 
five  miles  south-east  of  Nifiar,  is  the  most  remarkable. 
These  two  ancient  sites,  however,  are  separated  by  a 
great  extent  of  marsh,  so  that  Bismya  is  still  unex- 
plored. I  have  seen  it  at  the  distance  of  about  ten 
miles,  and,  from  its  low  but  spreading  outline,  I  believe 
it  to  be  of  very  ancient  origin.  This  form  is,  for  the 
most  part,  common  to  mounds  of  remote  age  in  Chalda3a, 
and  proves  that  after-generations  have  not  built  upon  the 
older  remains. 

Phara  is  another  of  the  Beni  Rechab  mounds,  abound- 
ing in  small  antiques,  such  as  signet-cylinders,  rude 
bronzes,  and  figures  carved  in  stone.  According  to  the 
Amir,  such  articles  "  flow  like  water "  from  the  mound. 
It  is  consequently  much  resorted  to  by  antique-hunters, 
who  find  a  ready  sale  for  their  treasures  among  the 
Europeans  at  Baghdad.  At  Phara  I  obtained  a  very 
interesting  Egyptian  amulet. 


CHAPTER  XL 

Diwaniyya — Camp  of  Abdi  Pasha — Mulla  'Ali,  the  Merry  Ogre — Sheep- 
skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Haminani — Solemn  Grandeur  of  Chal- 
dsean  Ruins — The  Statue — Tel  Ede — Alanii  of  the  Arabs — Fii'st 
Impressions  of  Warka. 

After  a  minute  inspection  of  the  ruins  of  NifFar,  we 
returned  to  Slikyer,  which  we  reached  before  sunset. 

Had  it  not  been  that  we  were  the  bearers  of  letters 
to  Abdi  Pasha,  who  was  then  at  Diwaniyya,  I  should 
have  made  an  effort  to  penetrate  through  the  Beni 
Rechab.  As  it  was,  however,  our  course  lay  south-east- 
ward from  Shkyer,  encountering  considerable  difficulties 
by  the  way.  The  marsh  was  wide,  and,  althougli  not 
generally  deep,  intersected  by  numerous  streamlets  from 
the  Euphrates,  which  rendered  the  passage  of  the  horses 
and  baggage-mules  no  easy  task.  Sheikh  Shkyer  under- 
took that  some  of  his  people  should  conduct  them  by  a 
circuitous  route,  so  as  to  avoid  the  main  inundation, 
but  they  were  still  obliged  to  ford  in  three  feet  water 
for  an  hour,  and  to  swim  across  the  deeper  streams. 
The  baggage  and  saddles  were  conveyed  with  ourselves 
in  terradas  through  the  open  marsh  and  straight  long 
lanes  or  ditches  of  reeds,  only  sufficiently  wide  to  admit 
of  two  boats  passing  each  other.  The  reeds  formed  walls 
on  either  side  to  the  height  of  twelve  or  fourteen  feet, 
and  excluded  every  breath  of  pure  air. 

The  animals  having  at  length  joined  us,  we  mounted, 


106  THE  pasha's  labours. 

and  traversed  some  groves  of  fine  tamarisks  to  the  little 
liamlet  of  Yiisufiyya,  surrounded  by  date-trees,  upon  the 
left  bank  of  an  important  trunk  stream  of  the  same  name. 
This  canal,  derived  from  the  Euphrates  a  few  miles  above 
the  town  of  Diwani}ya,  conveys  a  deep  flow  of  water  into 
the  interior  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation  in  those  locali- 
ties where  the  elevation  of  the  land  is  uninfluenced  by 
the  rise  or  fall  of  the  marshes.  The  Yusufiyya,  at  about 
seventeen  miles  from  its  source,  is  divided  into  three  parts 
— one  of  which,  called  the  Shat-el-Kahr,  falls  into  the 
marshes  of  the  Shat-el-Hie,  at  the  junction  of  that  branch 
of  the  Tigris  with  the  Eujohrates.  None  of  these  streams 
are  fordable,  consequently  the  depth  and  width  of  the 
Yusufiyya  is  considerable.  It  is  crossed  in  a  rude  boat  at 
the  village,  beyond  which  Diwaniyya  is  an  hour  distant. 

Our  tents  were  pitched  after  smiset  above  the  town,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  The  pasha,  with  a  camp 
of  3000  men,  was  stationed  on  the  opposite  side,  having 
just  concluded  one  of  those  Sisyphian  labours,  previously 
mentioned,  which  each  successive  governor  of  Baghdad  is 
obliged  to  undergo,  namely,  the  reconstruction  of  the 
dam  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hindleh.  He  was  now  sta- 
tioned at  Diwaniyya  for  the  fourfold  purjDose  of  testing 
the  result  of  his  work,  of  arranging  matters  consequent 
on  the  Wadi  Bey's  deposition,  of  curbing  the  universal 
disposition  to  rebel  against  the  Ottoman  rule,  and,  lastly, 
of  collecting  arrears  of  tribute. 

When  daylight  on  the  following  morning  revealed  our 
position,  the  appearance  of  tents  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river  caused  a  considerable  stir  in  the  camp  of  His 
Excellency  :  for  it  was  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
the  Turks  that  ordinary  travellers  could  surmount 
the  supposed  insuperable  difiiculties  of  the  marshes ; 
and — unless  we  had  dropped  from  above — there  was  no 
other  method  by  which  we  could  have  got  there.     Mes- 


THE  FAVOURITE  EUNUCH. 


107 


-vyry 


senger  after  messenger  arrived  in  kiifahs  to  satisfy  the 
curiosity  of  their  masters  concerning  the  rank,  quaHty, 
and  destination  of  the  new  comers.  In  due  time,  having 
previously  announced  our  arrival  to  the  pasha,  we  crossed 
the  river,  and  were  received  on  landing  by  an  officer  in 
waiting.  Instead,  however,  of  conducting  us  to  the  pre- 
sence of  the  pasha,  he  led  us — probably  bribed  to  do  so 
— to  the  tent  of  Mulla  'All,  the  little  eunuch  and  buffoon, 
of  whom  I  have  already  spoken  as  possessing  the  confi- 
dence of  the  governor.  His  purpose,  no  doubt,  was  to 
satisfy  himself  on  the  objects  of  our  journey,  and  the 
cause  of  our  visit  to  the  j^asha. 

Mulla  'All  was  originally  a  slave  of  a  former  pasha, 
but  his  antics  and  jokes  were  so  effective  that  he  obtained 
his  freedom,  and  subse- 
quently rose  high  in  favour 
with  'All  and  Nedjib  Pa- 
shas. It  was  impossible 
to  guess  his  age,  but,  as  he 
sat  doubled  up  on  a  carpet, 
covered  with  a  huge  furred 
cloth  tunic  and  an  enor- 
mous dark -green  turban, 
he  was  one  of  the  most 
repulsive  creatures  which 
the  eye  could  well  encoun- 
ter. His  face  more  resem- 
bled that  of  the  monkey 
tribe  than  anything  else 
I  can  conceive.    His  mouth 

stretched  nearly  from  ear  to  ear,  and  the  latter  append- 
aoes  stood  out  from  each  side  like  those  of  an  ass. 
Teetli  he  had  none,  so  that  his  tongue,  as  if  too  large  for 
his  mouth,  frequently  lolled  out,  giving  him  the  appear- 
ance of  an  idiot.      His  face,  thin  in  the  extreme,  was 


Mulla  'AH. 


108  THE  FAVOURITE  EUNUCH. 

puckered  into  a  thousand  wrinkles,  the  bones  projecting, 
and  the  skin  of  the  colour  and  consistency  of  hard  leather. 
The  whole  of  his  features  were  condensed  into  an  expres- 
sion of  low  cunning,  cupidity,  cruelty,  and  lust,  which  no 
one  could  behold  without  shuddering.  His  character  did 
not  belie  his  appearance.  He  was  at  one  time  made  chief 
over  certain  Khuzeyl  tribes,  but  his  conduct  was  such  that 
it  was  found  necessary  to  remove  him.  Money  was  his 
chief  object,  and  ]:e  extorted  it  without  scruple,  AVhen 
he  failed  by  the  itsual  means,  he  tried  torture,  and  took 
as  much  delight  in  the  sufferings  of  his  unfortunate  vic- 
tims as  either  Nero  or  Caligula.  His  favourite  punishment 
was  to  bury  an  offender  alive  with  his  hands  tied,  leaving 
only  his  shaven  head  above  ground,  but  this  was  smeared 
over  with  honey  to  attract  reptiles  and  insects !  The  wretch 
took  his  pleasure  in  frequently  going  to  grin  and  make 
faces  at  the  poor  victim,  who,  however,  without  food, 
and  under  an  almost  vertical  sun,  was  soon  relieved  by 
death  from  the  tortures  and  atrocities  he  suffered.  It  is 
difficult  to  comprehend  how  a  man  so  kind  and  humane 
as  Abdi  Pasha  could  consent  to  the  companionship  of  a 
creature  so  vile  and  abominable,  but  wherever  he  went, 
Mulla  'All  accompanied  him,  whatever  state-matter  he 
had  to  transact,  Mulla  'Ali  was  consulted.  It  is  true 
that  the  eunuch  was  full  of  anecdote,  and  his  drolleries 
made  the  staid  pasha  laugh  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
sober  affairs,  but  that  was  no  excuse  for  giving  coun- 
tenance to  a  creature  who  had  lost  all  human  feelini^s. 
However  gross  or  insulting  the  buffoon's  jests  miglit  be, 
the  pasha  was  always  ready  with  a  hoarse  laugh.  On 
one  occasion,  I  remember  seeing  Mulla  ^All,  like  a  huge 
toad,  publicly  spit  upon  the  person  of  an  European  gentle- 
man. The  pasha,  as  usual,  exercised  his  merriment ;  but 
in  an  instant  afterwards  looked  serious,  for  it  occurred  to 
him  that  this  was  a  matter  beyond  a  joke. 


INTERVIEW  WITH  THE  PASHA.  109 

This  paragon  of  ugliness  and  cruelty  received  his  visi- 
tors without  rising,  merely  motioning  us  to  be  seated  on 
the  carpet  near  him.  Salutations  and  compliments  were 
soon  dispensed  with,  by  his  abruptly  demanding  in  one 
breath,  "  where  Ave  had  come  from,  where  we  were  going, 
and  what  we  wanted  ? "  The  answer  appeared  to  amuse 
him  exceedingly,  for  he  burst  forth  into  an  inordinate  fit 
of  laughter,  in  which  he  was  joined  by  his  attendants,  who 
gathered  behind  their  master  to  ascertain  the  sul)ject  of 
gossip  for  the  day.  A  more  out-at-heel  squad  can  seldom 
be  seen.  Every  one  grinned  from  ear  to  ear,  in  imitation 
of  their  master,  at  the  very  idea  of  two  Englizi  passing 
through  the  ]\Iadan  country,  into  which  no  Turk  ever  yet 
dared  to  venture — being  pronounced  beyond  the  pale  of 
the  pasha's  authority.  MuUa  'Ali  became  guinea-yellow 
with  excitement  at  the  bare  possibility  of  such  an  attempt 
being  successful,  and  at  the  greater  probability  of  our 
being  spitted  on  Arab  spears.  He  told  some  horrid  stories 
of  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Mad  an  tribes  ;  but  these 
were  so  contrary  to  their  nature,  that  I  set  them  down 
as  instances  of  his  own  barbarity.  Not  finding  us  dis- 
posed to  believe  all  he  said,  he  endeavoured  to  amuse  his 
audience  at  our  expense  by  turning  round  and  remark- 
ing : — "  What  a  pleasure  it  would  be  to  hear  that  the 
Arabs  had  made  donkeys  of  them  ! "  The  reply  was,  that 
"  if  the  Arabs  did  so,  he  shoidd  not,"  and  so  we  left  him 
huddled  up  in  his  furs. 

We  found  the  Pasha  of  Baghdad  sitting  on  the  edge  of 
a  high  bank  overlooking  the  river,  with  that  expression 
of  utter  stolidity  which  characterizes  the  Turkish  features. 
Ask  a  grave  old  Turkish  gentleman  what  he  is  thinking 
about,  and  his  answer  will  invariably  be,  "By  Allah! 
what  should  I  think  of  1  Nothing."  So,  doubtless,  Al)di 
Pasha  thought  of  "  nothing"  as  our  approach  woke  him 
from  the  slumber  into  which  his  cogitations  had  fallen. 


110  PEEPARATIONS  AND  START. 

He  received  us  graciously,  but  could  by  no  means  com- 
prehend the  ol)ject  of  our  proposed  journey  on  the  eastenn 
side  of  the  Euphrates.  As  to  Warka,  or  the  region  where 
it  is  situated,  although  within  his  own  territories,  he  knew 
nothing  Avhatever.  The  official  map  called  for  gave  no 
further  explanation ;  whereupon  he  seemed  to  conclude 
that  Warka  must  be  an  exceedingly  dangerous  place,  for 
he  remarked  in  a  decided  manner,  "  You  cannot  go  ;  I  will 
not  be  answerable  for  your  safety."  Expostulation  had 
little  or  no  eflfect,  and  although  I  repeatedly  released  him 
from  all  responsibility,  the  same  answer  was  returned — 
"  It  is  impossible ;  you  must  travel  with  the  troops  and 
animals  by  way  of  Semava."  Seeing  that  no  good  could 
be  effected  by  reasoning  on  the  absurdity  of  his  fears  for 
our  safety,  I  merely  asked  for  a  small  party  of  Bashi 
Baziiks,  in  lieu  of  those  who  had  brought  us  to  Diwanijya, 
and  firmly  stated  my  intention  of  continuing  my  journey 
as  previously  arranged  at  Baghdad.  Having  done  so,  I 
left  him  biting  his  lip  and  wondering  at  European  obsti- 
nacy. ]\Iy  impression  was,  that  he  did  not  wish  strangers 
to  see  the  little  authority  he  exercised  over  the  tribes. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  day,  the  necessary  pre- 
parations were  made  for  entering  an  unknown  region. 
Several  skins  were  purchased  to  enable  our  crossing  any 
streams  and  marshes  which  might  fall  in  our  way.  The 
services  of  a  Jebur  Arab  Sheikh,  called  Mahmud,  whose 
camp  lay  on  our  route  near  the  verge  of  the  Amir's  terri- 
tories, were  secured  ;  and,  early  on  the  following  morning, 
nothing  was  wanting  but  the  promised  escort.  It  was 
some  time  before  the  p>aslia  could  be  prevailed  on  to  con- 
form to  my  wishes,  but  at  length  sixteen  rudely  equipped 
horsemen  crossed  the  river,  and  we  sallied  forth  from  the 
gToves  of  Diwaniyj^a  in  search  of  novelty  and  adventrn'^e, 
exulting  at  the  result  of  continued  obstinacy  and  deter- 
mination. 


PRIMITIVE  RAFTS.  Ill 

For  three  days  our  road  lay  across  a  level  and  un- 
interesting desert,  at  times  interrupted  by  a  detour  to 
avoid  a  marsh,  or  by  a  halt  to  cross  a  broad  and  deep 
water-course.  In  such  case  the  loads  were  unpacked, 
and  the  inflated  sheep-skins  tied  to  our  tent-poles  or 
branches  of  tamarisk — thus  forming  a  primitive  raft. 
Eeeds  were  then  placed  on  this  framework  in  order  to 
keep  the  passengers  and  luggage  dry.  In  this  manner 
all  were  floated  across  to  the  opposite  side,  while  the 
horses  and  mules  swam  over.  Sometimes,  when  the 
stream  was  very  rapid,  the  kelek  or  raft  was  attached 
to  a  rope,  and  prevented  from  floating  down  the  current. 

One  of  the  most  important  water-courses  was  the 
Fawar,  derived  from  the  Yusufijya,  and  terminating  in 
the  marshes  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  Fawar, 
in  its  turn,  gave  ofl"  a  considerable  branch  called  the 
Turunji3ya,  which  supplied  some  small  kal'as  and  the 
cultivated  land  adjoining  them.  The  Arab  owners,  how- 
ever, declining  the  payment  of  their  taxes,  had  endea- 
voured to  shew  their  independence  by  destroying  a  dam 
so  that  the  water  of  the  Fawar  might  be  transferred 
to  the  channel  of  the  Turunjiyya,  and  subsequently  into 
a  marsh  surrounding  their  abodes.  Abdi  Pasha  had  sent 
Mustapha  Bey,  the  kyaya  of  Baghdad,  with  a  large  force 
to  bring  these  refractory  Arabs  to  reason.  His  first  care 
was  to  close  the  mouth  of  Turunjiyya  with  a  strong  dam 
of  earth  and  brushwood,  and  afterwards  to  attack  a  fort 
to  which  the  Arabs  retreated.  He  was  successful  in  his 
eff'orts,  and  took  possession  of  the  fort  on  the  very  day 
we  passed — the  defenders  having  decamped  during  the 
night,  carrying  with  them  all  their  goods  and  chattels. 

We  crossed  the  Fawar  at  the  ruins  of  a  modern  town 
called  Silk-el-Fawar  (Fawar  Market),  once  a  consider- 
able and  thriving  place — the  centre  of  a  large  district 
like  Siik-esh-Sheioukh.      It  originally  belonged  to  the 


112  OLD  RIVER-BED. 

Muiiteflk  Arabs,  and  was  surrounded  at  intervals  Ly 
small  martello  towers,  for  defence  against  more  unsettled 
neighbours. 

I  have  already  had  occasion  to  allude  to  the  effect 
produced  by  the  destruction  of  the  dam  on  the  Eu- 
phrates above  Babylon,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hindieh.'" 
Nowhere  is  this  effect  better  observed  and  understood 
than  at  Suk-el-Fawar.  In  consequence  of  the  breaking 
of  that  dam  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  water 
deserted  the  channels  and  streams  on  the  east  of  the 
Euphrates.  Suk-el-Fawar,  among  other  places,  became 
a  sufferer  by  the  catastrophe,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
abandoned.  Decaying  date-trees,  and  ruins  of  well-built 
mud  huts,  extend  half-a-mile  along  both  sides  of  the 
channel,  harbouring  only  wild  beasts  and  reptiles.  The 
pasha's  recent  work  had  restored  a  copious  stream  to  the 
bed  of  the  Fawar,  and  water  was  flowing  towards  spots 
which  had  for  many  years  been  without  moisture. 

On  the  third  day's  journey  from  DiAvaniyya,  we  reached 
a  deep  river-bed,  now  dry,  called  by  the  Arabs  "  Shkain," 
or  "  Es-Sahain,"  which  w^as  said  to  have  also  become  dry  at 
the  same  time  as  the  Fawar.  The  great  size  of  the  chan- 
nel, measuring  270  feet  mde  by  15  or  20  deep,  shews  its 
importance.  Whether  it  had  ever  been  the  course  of  the 
Euphrates,  it  was  diflicult  to  decide  on  a  casual  examina- 
tion. It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  it  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  ancient  Nil,  previously  lost  to  sight  in  the 
marshes  of  Niffar.  At  any  rate,  its  course  singularly 
coincides  in  general  direction  with  that  of  the  Nil. 

Parallel  with  om-  road  could  be  traced  the  course  of 
the  Shat-el-Kahr — a  continuation  of  the  Yiisilfiyya — 
here  and  there  indicated  on  our  east  by  a  mud  fort  or 
enclosure.  Numerous  smaU.  mounds,  too,  began  to  spring 
up  in  advancing  soutln^'ard,  while  the  path  was  constantly 

*  Sec  page  44. 


GRANDEUR  OF  CHALDEAN  RUINS.  113 

strewed  with  fragments  of  bricks  and  pottery.  It  was 
evident  that  we  were  approaching  the  seats  of  ancient 
civihzation,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  once  populous 
cities.  The  further  we  proceeded,  the  more  clearly  was 
this  manifested. 

Our  new  guide,  Mdhmild,  having  mentioned  the  exist- 
ence of  a  large  statue  at  a  ruin  named  Hammam,*  I  deter- 
mined on  directing  our  course  to  the  east  of  the  road  we 
were  pursuing,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  his 
account,  because  little  reliance  can  usually  be  placed  on 
Arab  information  upon  such  points.  After  passing  several 
considerable  mounds  on  either  side,  we  at  length,  before 
sunrise  on  the  morning  of  the  fourth  day's  ride  from 
Dlwaniyya,  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  goal  we  sought. 

I  know  of  nothing  more  exciting  or  impressive  than 
the  first  sight  of  one  of  those  great  Chaldsean  piles  loom- 
ing in  solitary  grandeur  from  the  surrounding  plains  and 
marshes.  A  thousand  thoughts  and  surmises  concern- 
ing its  past  eventful  history  and  origin — its  gradual  rise 
and  rapid  fall — naturally  present  themselves  to  the  mind 
of  the  spectator.  The  hazy  atmosphere  of  early  morning- 
is  peculiarly  favourable  to  considerations  and  impres- 
sions of  this  character,  and  the  gray  mist  intervening- 
bet  ween  the  gazer  and  the  object  of  his  reflections,  im- 
parts to  it  a  dreamy  existence.  This  fairy-like  effect  is 
further  heightened  by  mirage,  which  strangely  and  fan- 
tastically magnifies  its  form,  elevating  it  from  the  ground, 
and  causing  it  to  dance  and  quiver  in  the  rarefied  air. 
No  Avonder,  therefore,  that  the  beholder  is  lost  in  j)l easing 
doubt  as  to  the  actual  reality  of  the  apparition  before 
him. 

The  ruins  of  Hammam  measure  about  a  mile  in  diame- 

*  The  site  of  Hammdm,  "  a  bath,"  is  believed  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson 
to  represent  the  Giilaba  of  cuneiform  inscriptions.  See  Proceedings  ol 
Royal  Geographical  Society  for  April  1856,  p.  47. 

H 


114 


RUINS  OF  HAMMAM. 


ter,  and  consist  of  a  series  of  low  undulations  around  a 
grand  central  tower,  whose  remarkable  form  cannot  fail 


Ruins  of  Hivmm^m. 


to  attract  attention.  Owing  to  the  falling  away  of  the 
brickwork  at  its  sides  and  base,  and  to  the  projection  of 
its  upper  parts,  this  building  has,  in  the  distance,  under 
the  influence  of  mirage,  the  appearance  of  a  gigantic 
mushroom.  Its  total  height  is  about  fifty  feet,  of  which 
twenty  is  a  conical  mound  supporting  a  mass  of  unbaked 
brickwork.  Its  original  form  has  evidently  been  square, 
but  the  sides  are  now  reduced  to  seventy-eight  feet  each, 
and  the  angles  are  rounded  off.  Judging  by  other  ruins 
of  similar  character,  and  by  the  numerous  broken  frag- 
ments lying  upon  the  sloping  sides  of  the  mound,  it  was 
probably  faced  externally  with  kiln-baked  bricks.  The 
most  northerly  angle  points  twenty  degrees  east  of  north. 
A  deep  channel,  formed  by  the  rains  of  "winter,  divides 
each  side  into  equal  parts,  and  leaves  the  angles  projecting 
like  four  rounded  turrets.  The  action  of  the  weather, 
too,  has  likewise  worn  away  these  apparent  towers,  and 


THE  ANCIENT  STAT  CJE.  115 

exposed  a  layer  of  reeds  at  tlio  summit  of  each.  The 
bricks  used  in  the  construction  of  this  edifice  measure 
fourteen  and  a-half  inches  square  by  five,  or  five  and 
a-half  inches  thick,  and  are  composed  of  sun-dried  clay, 
mixed  with  barley-chaff  and  chopped  straw.  Each  row 
is  separated  by  a  layer  of  reeds,  which  project  and  shelter 
the  bricks  beneath  them  from  the  influence  of  the  weather. 
It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  purpose  of  this  and  simi- 
lar edifices  throughout  Babylonia,  unless  we  assume  them 
to  have  been  platforms  for  the  erection  of  temples,  such 
as  may  be  seen  in  a  state  of  better  preservation  at  Blrs 
Nimriid  and  Mugeyer.  That  the  ruin  at  Hammam  was 
a  portion  of  a  temple  devoted  to  the  worship  of  a  Chal- 
dsean  divinity,  is  moreover  inferred  from  the  statue  which 
lay  about  two  hundred  yards  from  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  ruin  ;  this  bore  all  the  characteristics  of  a  sacred 
idol.  Unfortunately  it  has  suffered  much  from  ill-usage, 
being  not  only  broken,  but  otherwise  maliciously  defaced. 
According  to  the  information  of  our  guide,  this  inte- 
resting statue  was  perfect  about  two  years  previously, 
but  was  broken  with  large  hammers  by  a  tribe'"  who 
work  in  iron  near  Siik-esh-Sheioukh,  in  the  expectation 
of  finding  gold  in  its  interior.  It  had  likewise  been  used 
as  a  target  by  the  Arabs  for  ball-practice ,  but  the  frac- 
tures bore  evidence  of  having  been  effected  at  an  earlier 
period  than  my  informant  admitted. 

*  By  this  description  must  be  implied  the  Sabceans  or  Christians  of  St 
John — a  strange  race  of  whom  little  is  known.  They  are  probably  a  relic 
of  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  country.  I  doubt  their  ability  to  break  so 
large  a  block  of  stone  ;  and  it  is  not  their  custom  to  travel  about  with  the 
large  implements  of  their  trade.  My  friend  Professor  Petermann,  the  emi- 
nent Oriental  linguist  and  savant  of  Berlin,  passed  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
year  1854  at  Suk-esh-Sheioukh  among  the  Sabl.  We  may  shortly  expect 
some  valuable  information  from  his  pen  concerning  them.  A  few  families 
reside  at  Shtaster  and  Dizfiil,  whsre  they  are  dreadfully  persecuted  by  both 
Persians  and  Arabs.  General  Williams,  with  the  humanity  which  distin- 
guishes him,  obtciiued  a  firman  from  the  Shah  for  their  protection. 


116  THE  ANCIENT  STATUE. 

Tliis  statue  represents  a  male  human  figure,  of  the 
natural  size  and  correct  proportions,  cut  out  of  finely- 
grained  black  granite,  and  executed  with  remarkable  skill. 
The  torso  is  broken  at  the  waist,  where  the  hands  are 
clasped  in  front,  as  if  holding  a  garment  thrown  loosely 
over  the  left  shoulder.  The  right  shoulder  is  bare,  with 
a  defaced  inscription  in  Babylonian  characters  cut  upon 
it.  The  head'"'  and  arms  are  unfortunately  gone.  This 
fraornent  measures  sixteen  inches  from  the  neck  to  the 
waist,  and  nineteen  inches  between  the  shoulders.  The 
second  piece,  representing  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  has 
been  severed  from  the  former,  and  measures  two  feet  six 
inches.  The  surface  is  much  broken  ;  but  upon  the 
right  hip  and  side  there  is  another  defajed  inscription, 
bordered  w^ith  a  deep  fringe  similar  to  that  represented 
on  the  Assyrian  sculptures.  The  third  and  last  fragment 
is  a  shapeless  block,  thirteen  inches  long  and  ten  inches 
A\dde,  polished  on  one  side,  and  exhibiting  a  trace  of  gar- 
ment fringe. 

Statues  of  Babylonian  workmanship  being  extremely 
rare,  I  packed  the  pieces  in  the  best  manner  which 
circumstances  would  admit,  and  brought  the  awkward 
loads  on  the  backs  of  our  mules  to  Busrah,  whence 
they  were  shipped  for  England.  These  fragments,  I 
believe,  are  the  only  specimen  of  an  undoubted  Baby- 
lonian statue  in  Europe  ;  but  I  am  sorry  to  remark  that 
they  still  lie  neglected  in  the  vaults  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, t 

Want  of  time  prevented  my  making  a  thorough  exa- 
mination of  the  other  ruins  of  Hamm^m.  As  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  occupied  by  succeeding  dynas- 

*  In  the  possession  of  Captain  Lynch,  C.B.,  UT.,  is  a  very  beautiful  head 
of  similar  stone,  which  probably  belongs  to  this  statue,  having  been  repre- 
sented to  him  as  obtained  from  this  neighbourhood. 

t  In  1854  I  obtained  a  similar,  but  smaller,  statue  from  the  neighbouring 
mound  of  Yokha,  which  was  likewise  sent  to  England. 


mAdan  alarm.  117 

ties,  they  will  probably  afford  valuable  information  con- 
cerning the  Chaldsean  period.  If  excavations  are  ever 
again  undertaken  in  those  regions,  Hammam  is  one  of 
those  sites  which  deserves  early  attention.''^ 

Within  sight  of  Hammam,  about  six  miles  distant  in 
the  south-south-west,  rises  another  lofty  and  imposing 
pile,  called  Tel  Ede,  or  Yede.  Towards  it  our  course  was 
next  directed. 

We  had  by  this  time  reached  the  limits  of  the  Mun- 
tefik  territories,  inhabited  by  the  wildest  of  those  Ma- 
dan  tribes  who  acknowledge  fealty  to  the  great  sheikh. 
As  we  advanced  in  a  compact  party,  we  were  espied  by  a 
few  Arab  shepherds  tending  their  flocks,  which  find 
excellent  grazing  on  the  short  grass  produced  by  the 
early  rains  among  the  sand-hills.  Alarmed  at  the  sight 
of  so  many  horsemen,  they  took  up  their  position  on  a 
small  mound,  elevated  a  black  kefileh  upon  a  spear,  sang 
their  war-cry,  and  danced  like  spirits  demented.  In  a  few 
minutes  they  were  joined  by  others  of  their  tribe,  who 
joined  in  the  song  and  dance,  until  they  were  almost  lost 
to  our  sight  in  the  dense  cloud  of  dust  created  by  their 
frantic  evolutions.  V/lien  they  considered  their  numbers 
sufficiently  strong,  this  half-naked  band  of  savages — 
their  abbas  bound  round  their  waists,  their  heads  bare, 
and  their  long  black  locks  flowing  wildly  in  the  breeze — 
formed  in  the  most  approved  style  of  Arab  array,  and  ran 
at  a  rapid  pace,  with  spear  and  club  in  hand,  to  meet  the 
supposed  enemy. 

The  whole  neighbourhood  was  in  a  state  of  the 
greatest  excitement  and  alarm.  The  sheep  and  cattle 
were   being   driven   towards  the  tents   for  protection ; 

*  When  I  passed  through  the  country  a  second  time  in  1854,  it  was  my 
intention  to  have  commenced  operations  at  Hanimdm  on  behalf  of  the 
Assyrian  Excavation  Society  ;  but  the  want  of  water  in  the  Shat-el-Kahr, 
which  flows  within  a  few  miles  of  these  ruins,  comi:)clled  my  seeking  a  more 
eligible  locality. 


118  mAdAn  alarm. 

the  Avomen  collected  in  numbers  togetlier  upon  the 
mound  which  their  heroes  had  just  quitted,  ui-ging 
them  on  to  brave  deeds  by  their  shrill  and  constant 
tahlehl — a  sound  intermediate  between  a  halloo,  a  whistle, 
and  a  scream,  which  rings  through  the  nerves  like  a  gal- 
vanic shock.  The  warriors  approached  us  in  admirable 
order,  as  if  they  had  passed  through  many  a  field-day, 
and  were  quite  prepared  to  do  or  die,  as  brave  hearts 
shoukl,  in  defence  of  their  kxdies  fair.  Arrangino;  them- 
selves  in  two  long  lines,  at  equal  intervals  apart,  in  num- 
ber about  sixty,  they  then  advanced,  in  New  Zealand 
fashion,  with  a  kind  of  running  dance,  chanting  their 
war-song,  and  throwing  their  weapons  high  into  the  air, 
to  catch  them  again,  with  inimitable  dexterity,  in  their 
descent.  Tliey  were  apparently  led  by  an  old  man  with 
a  luxuriant  white  beard,  who  sang  the  solo  parts,  and 
was  otherwise  exceedingly  active  in  the  whole  business. 
Mahmiid  rode  forward  to  explain  that  we  came  in  peace, 
and  not  in  war ;  whereupon  the  announcement  was 
received  with  a  yeU  of  indescribable  expression.  One  of 
our  horsemen  fooHshly  fired  a  pistol  while  they  danced 
round  about  our  party,  which  added  tenfold  to  the 
general  excitement.  Positive  exhaustion  alone  obliged 
them  to  desist.  Then  came  inquiries  and  explanations, 
which  resulted  in  their  insisting  on  oiu?  taking  up  our 
quarters  for  the  night  at  their  encampment,  shewing 
that  genuine  hospitahty  to  strangers  which  does  so  much 
honour  to  the  i\j:ab  character.  They  would  take  no 
excuse,  and,  seizing  the  bridles  of  our  horses,  were  about 
to  drag  us  thither  with  good-humoured  force.  I  was  not, 
however,  inclined  to  forego  my  visit  to  Tel  Ede,  and 
therefore  entered  into  an  amicable  arrangement,  by  which 
they  agreed  to  conduct  the  mules  and  baggage  to  their 
tents,  while  we  rode  forward  to  the  ruins. 

The  great  pile  of  Tel  Ede  much  disappointed  my  ex- 


TEL  EDE. 


119 


pectations.     It  is  a  huge  artificial  mass  of  solid  sand, 
ninety  feet  liigli,  the  circumference  of  its  base  measuring 


■*S>»i^r«i5^ 


Tel  Ede. 


2500  feet.  Its  form  is  irregular,  and  its  largest  diameter 
from  north-west  to  south-east.  Its  highest  point  is  at  the 
north-west.  The  south-west  face  is  steep  and  inacces- 
sible ;  while  that  on  the  opposite  side  is  furrowed  by  deep 
rain-channels.  The  north-west  side  is  much  weathered, 
and  exhibits  a  section  of  its  compact  sandy  mass."^^*  The 
effect  of  rain  and  wind  is  to  cut  large  holes  deeply  into 
the  surface.  The  long  ridge-like  ranges  of  small  mounds 
at  its  north-east  base  are  covered  with  the  usual  relics 
— such  as  fragments  of  bricks,  pottery,  and  glass — but 
they  are  still  unexamined  by  the  spade,  and  await  the 
investigation  of  some  future  adventurer. 

At  first  sight,  I  was  almost  induced  to  consider  Tel  Ede 
a  continuation  of  a  range  of  sand-hiUs  which  bear  away 
from  it  towards  the  south-east ;  but  its  dimensions  and 

•  Mr  Taylor  excavated  deeply  into  a  similar  conical  monnd,  called  Um- 
wdweis.  A  high  wind  arising  during  the  night,  completely  carried  away  its 
summit :  so  light  were  the  particles  when  loosened. 


1  20  CONICAL  MOUNDS. 

compactness,  as  well  as  its  evident  connexion  with  tokens 
of  ancient  remains  at  its  base,  do  not  confirm  this  suppo- 
sition. Moreover,  I  afterwards  ascertamed  that  similar 
conical  mounds  occur  in  various  parts  of  Chaldoea,  in- 
variably surroimded  by,  or  connected  with,  lesser  mounds 
undoubtedly  artificial.  They  appear  to  have  been  citadels 
or  temples  of  the  same  period  as  the  adjacent  ruins  ;  but 
it  is  remarkable  that  they  bear  on  their  summits  no  trace 
of  brickwork,  and  are  merely  cones  of  solid  earth  and 
sand.  In  two  instances,  I  caused  excavations  to  be  made 
into  similar  but  smaller  conical  mounds  at  Warka ;  but 
from  top  to  base  they  exhibited  no  change  of  character ; 
nor  did  they  contain  the  slightest  clue  to  their  origin. 
Until  such  be  obtained,  we  must  remain  in  ignorance  on 
the  subject. 

Having  completed  our  casual  survey,  we  regained  the 
Ijaggage  and  servants  at  the  Arab  camp,  two  miles  dis- 
tant, where  our  tents  were  already  pitched  among  the 
sand-hills.  Our  hosts  belonged  to  the  Madan  Arabs — 
those  of  the  lowest  caste,  who  are  employed  by  the  supe- 
rior Arabs  in  tending  buffaloes  and  cattle,  or  in  cultivat- 
ing maize  on  the  edges  of  the  inundations.  Ignorant  and 
despised,  they  live  in  the  most  primitive  state  of  bar- 
barism, their  only  wants  being  those  of  absolute  necessity. 
At  times,  when  the  Euphrates  fails  in  its  annual  rise  to 
overflow  their  lands,  the  destitution  of  the  Mddan  is 
extreme,  and  they  are  even  reduced  to  the  alternative  of 
digging  up  roots  to  support  a  miserable  state  of  poverty 
and  hunger.  Their  ignorance  is  extreme ;  and  I  could 
scarcely  believe  that  very  few  among  them  had  ever  seen 
a  mule,  until  their  genuine  surprise  was  evident  at  those 
which  carried  our  ba2;2;ao;e !  S\ik-esh-Sheioukh  and 
Semava  are  immense  cities  in  their  estimation  ;  Baghdad 
and  Busrah  are  far  beyond  the  limits  of  their  peregrina- 
tions ;  Stambiil  and  the  Sultan  they  have  barely  heard  of. 


THE  MAdAN  ARABS.  121 

Like  hyaenas  or  jackals,  they  congregate  amid  the  burial- 
places,  or  pitch  their  tents  upon  tlie  ruined  cities  of  the 
past,  without  the  slightest  reverence  for  or  knowledge  of 
the  people  by  whom  those  monuments  were  raised.    These 
mounds  yield  them  utensils  for  their  camp  and  frequently 
gold   from  a  ransacked  tomb,  which  is  disposed  of  to 
wandering  Jews  for  a  few  dates,  valueless  cotton  fabrics, 
or  rude  ornaments  for  their  women.    Unlike  the  Bedouins, 
little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  their  word,  and  they  do 
not  scruple  to  plunder,  both  openly  and  secretly,  from 
their  enemies  and  friends  without  distinction.     It  is  true, 
that  diu'ing  my  subsequent  stay  among  them  nothing  was 
positively  taken  from  my  tent ;  but  they  could  not  resist 
the  desire  to  pilfer  whenever  ojiportunity  was  afforded 
them.     Cupidity  is  their  weak  point ;  for  a  trifle  they 
will  cringe  Hke  the  most  abject  slave,  and  condescend  to 
the  meanest  artifices  to  obtain  what  they  crave.     Fickle 
and  almost  unmanageable,  few  persons  can  conceive  the 
difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  undertaking  excavations 
among  them.     It  was  only  by  employing  parties  from 
several  tribes,  and  pitting  one  against  the  other,  that  I 
succeeded  in  carrying  on  researches  in  the  region  they 
occupy.     Jealousy  and  ill-wiU  had  great  effect  upon  them. 
The  Jebiir  and  other  tribes  employed  in  the  excavations 
at  Nineveh  are  comparatively  civilized ;  but  the  Madan 
of  Chaldsea  are  little  superior  to  the  buffaloes  they  tend, 
and  are  regarded  as  destitute  of  feeling  by  the  superior 
class  of  Ai-abs.     Yet  they  are  not  altogether  without 
good  qualities.     Merry  and  good-humoured,  they  contrast 
advantageously   with   the    neighboiuing    tribes   of    the 
Amir,  and  the  suUen  Beni  Lam  across  the  Shat-el-Kahr. 
Their  hospitality  knows  no  bounds,  and  they  will  willingly 
share  with  the  passing  traveller  the  little  stores  they  pos- 
sess, until  the  whole  has  disaj)peared.     In  the  present 
instance,  our  large  party  quickly  demolished  their  stock  of 


122  THF  MAdAN  ARABS. 

barley,  and  before  morning  all  the  rice  of  the  encamp- 
ment was  consumed  by  our  animals.'^ 

The  Llddan  are  slightly  built,  but  well-formed,  strong, 
and  active.  Their  skin,  exposed  to  all  temperatures,  from 
25°  to  150°  Fahr.,  is  tanned  to  a  deep  swarthy  hue,  and 
seldom,  even  in  the  coldest  weather,  covered  with  more 
than  a  single  abba,  made  of  goat's  hair.  KefFiehs  or 
head-dresses  appear  to  be  despised ;  their  hair,  hanging 
in  tliick  plaits,  or  more  commonly  in  a  state  of  nature, 
is  so  plentiful,  that  it  alone  affords  suflElcient  pro- 
tection from  the  summer's  sun.  Their  eyes,  wild  but 
expressive,  shine  with  a  brightness  seldom  witnessed  in 
our  own  humid  climate ;  while  their  teeth,  from  eating 
only  vegetable  food,  can  vie  in  whiteness  with  the  purest 
ivory.  Fire-arms  are  almost  unknown  among  the  Madan ; 
but  no  man  leaves  his  tent  without  a  favourite  spear  or 
bitimien-headed  club,  of  which  he  is  prepared  to  make 
good  use  whenever  opportunity  arises  or  necessity  re- 
quires. Feuds  are  of  continual  occurrence,  either  with 
their  neighbours  or  among  themselves.  The  period  of 
our  visit,  notwithstanding  the  warnings  of  the  pasha  and 
the  Turkish  authorities,  was  peculiarly  favoiu'able ;  a 
peaceful  cahn  prevailed  after  the  raging  storm  which  had 
just  ceased  with  the  change  of  governors. 

Throughout  this  journey,  the  only  real  annoyance  I 
experienced  was  from  the  Bashi  Biizuks.  Accustomed  to 
plunder  and  abuse  all  who  came  in  their  way,  the}'  were 
Tsath  difhculty  restrained  from  ill-treating  their  kind 
Arab  hosts ;  and  it  was  only  by  constant  entreaties  and 
threats  that  they  were  compelled  to  desist.  The  Arabs 
frequently  complained  to  me  of  their  conduct ;  and  often, 
when  I  expressed  a  probability  of  my  returning  among 
them,  I  was  greeted  mth  the  remark,  "  Come,  Beg,  we 
shall  be  glad  to  receive  you  as  a  brother,  but  do  not 

*  See  chapter  xiv.  for  farther  uescription  of  the  Mdddn  Arabs. 


NIGHT  SCENE.  123 

bring  the  niz^m  (soldiers)  with  you.  We  will  guard  you 
better  than  they ! "  I  took  their  advice  on  my  return 
among  them,  and  did  not,  in  this  case,  regret  having 
trusted  to  their  word. 

As  an  instance  of  the  security  of  a  stranger  in  an  Arab 
camp,  a  scene  may  be  related  which  took  place  at  this 
locality.  Guards  had,  as  usual,  been  placed  around  our 
tents,  and  every  person  had  retired  to  rest,  when — by 
accident  or  design,  whether  by  friend  or  foe  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say — a  pistol  was  fired  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  my  tent.  The  whole  encampment  was  in- 
stantly roused,  and  a  report  spread  that  an  enemy  was 
in  the  neiohbourhood.  The  war  chant  of  our  hosts  was 
echoed  on  all  sides  from  distant  encampments ;  the 
sounds,  at  first  low  and  indistinct,  gradually  becoming 
louder  and  nearer,  at  length  made  us  aware  that  large 
bodies  of  the  Madan  were  advancing  to  the  rescue.  The 
efi"ect  was  startling  and  grand,  as  the  dead  silence  of 
night  was  broken  by  an  excitement  of  this  natm-e.  Two 
or  three  hundred  men  were  speedily  gathered  round  our 
tents,  and  joined  in  the  same  wild  chant,  grunting,  yell- 
ing, and  dancing  without  cessation.  At  length  it  was 
discovered  that  an  enemy  did  not  exist,  and  each  party 
slowly  retired  to  its  own  encampment,  but  it  was  long 
before  all  became  once  more  still. 

From  our  night's  resting-place,  the  outline  of  the 
lofty  and  imposing  mounds  of  Warka  was  distinctly 
visible.  The  mao;nitude  of  the  ruins  determined  me  to 
send  on  the  baggage  a  couple  of  hours  further  to  another 
Arab  camp,  so  that,  if  requisite,  we  might  have  the  op- 
portunity of  renewing  acquaintance  with  them  on  the 
morrow. 

On  again  emerging  from  the  low  sand-hills  upon  the 
open  plain,  we  crossed  a  plot  of  ground,  covered  with  a 
natiural  carpet  of  the  richest  green.     The  grass,  incited 


124  FIRST  VIEW  OF  WARKA. 

by  the  few  light  showers  recently  fallen,  was  being 
eagerly  cropped  by  numerous  herds  of  graceful  gazelle, 
which  left  their  browsing  as  the  party  approached,  and 
bounded  ofif  in  long  lines  to  search  for  a  quieter  retreat. 
The  scene  before  us  was  exciting.  Even  the  staid  Bashi 
Bazilks  were  moved  beyond  their  wont,  and,  packing  up 
their  long  chibiiks,  set  spurs  to  their  horses.  Uttering 
wild  cries,  they  vainly  attempted  to  overtake  the  frighted 
herds,  or  played  at  jerid  among  themselves  for  their 
own  and  others'  amusement,  leaving  deep  tracks  in  the 
soft  green  sward.  The  scene,  too,  was  doubly  enjoyable 
by  comparison  with  the  sterile  and  glaring  desert  at  the 
commencement  of  our  journey  :  while  the  sight  of  AVarka 
within  a  few  miles'  distance,  and  the  discussion  natm^ally 
raised  by  its  proximity,  created  a  measure  of  excitement 
and  delight  in  my  companion  and  myself  which  none  but 
ardent  antiquarians  on  new  ground  can  fully  appreciate. 
Three  massive  piles  rose  prominent  before  our  \iew 
from  an  extensive  and  confused  series  of  mounds,  at  once 
shewing  the  importance  of  the  ruins  which  we — their 
first  European  visitors — now  rapidly  approached.  The 
whole  was  surrounded  by  a  lofty  and  strong  line  of 
earthen  ramparts,  concealing  from  view  all  but  the 
principal  objects.  Beyond  the  walls  were  several  conical 
mounds,  resembling,  in  their  general  form,  that  of  Tel 
Ede — one  of  which  equalled  in  altitude  the  highest  struc- 
ture within  the  circiuuscribed  area.  Each  step  that  we 
took,  after  crossing  the  walls,  convinced  me  that  AVarka 
was  a  much  more  important  place  than  had  been  hitherto 
supposed,  and  that  its  vast  mounds,  abounding  in  objects 
of  the  highest  interest,  deserved  a  thorough  exploration. 
I  determined,  therefore,  on  using  every  effort  to  make 
researches  at  AVarka,  which,  of  all  the  ruins  in  Chaldasa, 
is  alone  worthy  to  rank  with  those  of  Babylon  and 
Nineveh. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  WARKA.  125 

All  tliat  could  be  effected  at  this  visit  was  to  make  a 
careful  map  of  the  place,  and  to  take  such  general  notes 
as  miolit  be  hereafter  useful.  Its  most  remarkable  feature 
is  the  enormous  accumulation  of  sepulchral  remains  of 
extraordiuary  character,  which  at  once  prove  it  to  have 
been  a  vast  necropolis,  dating  probably  from  times  the 
most  remote.  As  the  importance  of  Warka  requires  a 
separate  chapter  to  describe  its  wonders,  I  shall  defer 
that  account  for  the  present. 

On  this  occasion,  Mr  Churchill  and  myself  spent  nearly 
two  days  upon  the  ruins,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining 
several  small  articles  and  executing  some  drawings  which 
indicated  the  great  antiquity  of  the  site.  With  these  we 
once  more  resumed  our  journey,  fearing  lest,  by  a  longer 
stay,  we  might  be  too  late  to  rejoin  the  Turkish  troops 
according  to  arrangement  at  Suk-esh-Sheioukh.  It  was 
with  no  little  regret,  therefore,  that  we  were  compelled 
to  leave  a  spot  so  replete  with  interest. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Bedoiiins — Mubsirek  becomes  useful — Ruins  of  ]\Iugeyer — Cylinders — 
Chedorlaomer  1 — Belsliazzar — The  Author  and  his  Guides  put  to 
flight  their  Turkish  Escort — Busrah — ^Arrival  in  Persia. 

From  Warka  we  rode  nine  miles  in  a  south-south-east 
direction,  over  a  desert  frequently  covered  with  marsh, 
to  a  new  kal'a  called  Duraji,'''  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  near  which  our  road  passed  over  low  rough 
ground,  dead  rushes,  and  old  channels  of  the  river — the 
evidences  of  former  inundations.  Here  we  encamped  for 
the  night,  within  sight  of  three  remarkable  piles  of  past 
gi'eatness — Tel  Ede,  Warka,  and  Sinkara — the  last  of 
which  I  succeeded  in  ^dsiting  on  subsequent  occasions, 
and  which  will  be  described  in  due  time. 

Our  course  from  Diiraji  followed  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Euphrates  to  the  marshes  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Shat-el-Hie  and  Shat-el-Kahr  with  that  river.  At  the 
parallel  of  Baghdad,  the  level  of  the  Euphrates  is  so 
much  above  that  of  the  Tigris,  that  the  water  of  the  for- 
mer flows  into  the  latter  by  a  canal  called  the  Seglawijya. 
As  the  two  rivers  pursue  their  course  southward,  the 
Euphrates  descends  with  more  rapidity,  and,  at  31°  north 
latitude,  is  for  the  first  time  joined  by  the  water  of  the 
Tigris  through  the  channel  called  the  Shat-el-Hie,  which 
bifurcates  from  the  main  stream  at  Kiit-el-'Amara.  The 
Shat-el-Hie,  in  conjunction  with  the  Shat-el-Kahr,  forms 

*  From  the  number  of  "  francolin"  which  abound  there. 


BEDOUINS.  127 

an  extensive  marsh,  out  of  which  a  single  stream  finds  its 
way  to  the  Euphrates.  Just  above  the  point  of  junction 
a  kiifah  ferry  is  maintained,  by  means  of  which  we 
crossed  to  the  western  sido,  where  we  suddenly  found 
ourselves  among  a  number  of  Bedouin  encampments  of 
Aneiza  and  Dhefyr  tribes,  who,  for  the  sake  of  the  water 
and  vegetation  of  the  Euphrates,  usually  frequent  its 
banks  at  that  season  of  the  year.  It  was  then  that  we 
experienced  the  benefit  of  Mitbarek's  escort.  Several 
times  strong  parties  of  horsemen,  attracted  by  the  sight 
of  a  caravan,  were  in  the  act  of  swooping  down  upon  our 
little  party,  when  the  wild  fellow,  whose  eye  always  first 
detected  their  movements,  urged  his  horse  to  full  speed 
and  rode  forth  to  meet  them.  An  embrace  from  each  of 
the  Arabs  usually  greeted  our  friend,  a  short  conversation 
ensued,  and  they  quietly  retired  in  the  direction  from 
which  they  had  come,  while  Miibarek  returned  in 
triumph  to  announce  the  success  of  his  interview.  With 
his  aid  we  passed  unmolested  over  some  cultivated  lands 
belonging  to  a  tribe  of  Agayl  Arabs,  opposite  Imam 
Sherifeli,  whose  hospitality  we  sought  for  the  night 
within  sight  of  the  great  temple  of  Milgeyer.  At  this 
point  commences  the  line  of  date-groves  which  extend 
in  uninterrupted  succession  along  both  banks  of  the  river 
to  its  embouchure  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  A 
messenger  from  the  sheikh  of  the  Muntefik  was  here  await- 
ing the  arrival  of  the  Turkish  troops  and  animals,  which, 
notwithstanding  our  zigzag  route  and  detention  at  Warka, 
liad  not  yet  arrived  at  the  rendezvous. 

The  unexpected  delay  of  the  Turkish  escort  afi'orded 
me  the  much-coveted  opportunity  of  turning  aside  to 
examine  the  jMiigeyer,  of  which  Mr  Baillie  Eraser  gives 
a  short  description  in  his  volume  on  "  Mesopotamia  and 
Assyria,""     From  the  Agayl  camp  to  the  ruins  was  a 

*  Pase  US. 


128 


RUINS  OF  MtJGEYER. 


distance  of  nine  miles,  but  at  a  point  further  to  tlie  south 
the  Euphrates  approaches  within  six  miles.  During  the 
high  inundations  of  the  river,  however,  Miigeyer  is  com- 
pletely surrounded  Ijy  water,  and  is,  like  AVarka,  unap- 
proaclial)le  on  any  side  except  in  boats. 

The  ruins  consist  of  a  low  series  of  moimds,  of  oval 
form,  the  largest  diameter  from  north  to  south  measuring 
rather  more  than  half  a  mile. 

The  name  Miigeyer  is,  however,  peculiarly  given  to  a 
remarkable  building,  seventy  feet  high,  which  stands 
near  the  north  end  of  the  mounds,  and  is  the  only 
example  of  a  Babylonian  temple  remaining  in  good  pre- 
servation, not  wholly  covered  by  rubbish.  It  is  built 
of  large  bricks,  and  from  their  being  "  cemented  with 
bitumen  "  originates  the  modern  name  of  JMiigeyer."'     It 

consists  of  two  distinct  but 
massive  stories,  having  the 
plan  of  a  right-angled  paral- 
lelogram, the  longest  sides  of 
which  are  the  north-east  and 
south-west.  One  angle  points 
due  north,  which  feature,  I 
may  remark,  is  observable 
in  all  edifices  of  true  Chal- 
dsean  origin.  As  each  story 
rises,  it  gradually  slopes  in- 
wards at  an  angle  of  nine 
degrees,  for  the  purpose, 
doubtless,  of  bearing  great 
superincumbent  pressure,  and 
to  this  fact  may  be  attribu- 
ted the  remarkably  perfect 
condition  of  the  whole  remaining  edifice.  The  lower 
story  is,  moreover,  supported  by  buttresses  thirteen  inches 

*  Frequently,  but  incori'ectly,  called  Umgheir. 


Plan  of  the  Great  Temple  of  MCigeyer. 


RUINS  OF  mCGEYER.  129 

deep,  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  at  the  angles,  8 
feet  wide.  The  longest  sides — the  north-east  and  south- 
west— measure  198  feet  each ;  the  others  only  133  feet. 
The  number  of  buttresses  on  the  south-west  are  nine, 
and  on  the  north-west  six.  Those  of  the  other  sides 
are  concealed  in  rubbish.  Whether  intentional  or  not, 
the  above  measurements  and  numbers  are  in  the  ratio 
of  3  :  2. 

The  basement  or  lower  story  is  27  feet  in  height,  and 
exhibits  but  one  entrance,  8  feet  wide,  on  the  north-east 
side,  which  leads  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the 
building.  Between  the  stories  is  a  gradual,  stepped  in- 
cline, about  7  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  which  may, 
however,  be  accidental,  and  arise  from  the  destruction  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  lower  story. 

The  upper  story  is  14  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by 
about  5  feet  of  brick  rubbish.  As  far  as  I  coidd  ascer- 
tain, the  sides  of  this  story  are  without  supporting  but- 
tresses, measure  respectively  119  by  75  feet,  and  recede 
several  feet  from  the  lower  waU  ;  '"*  bu  t  the  whole  of  the 
south-east  side  of  the  edifice  is  in  ruins,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  say  whether  the  length  of  the  upper  story 
exceeded  119  feet.  It  rather  struck  me,  however,  from 
the  gradual  incline  from  top  to  base,  that  a  grand  stair- 
case, of  the  same  width  as  the  upper  story,  occupied  this 
side  of  the  structure. 

Various  piles  of  rubbish  occur  at  different  parts,  and 
render  it  difficult  to  give  detailed  measurements.  The- 
Miigeyer  appears  to  stand  on  a  mound  about  20  feet  high. 
The  exterior  of  the  whole  edifice  is  faced,  to  the  thickness 

*  Mr  Taylor  remarks  that  "  the  second  story  is  close  up  to  the  northern 
end  of  the  first."  There  are,  however,  30  feet  between  the  summit  edge  of 
the  first  and  the  base  of  the  second.  Mr  Taylor  must  intend  to  say  that  the 
second  story  is  closer  up  to  the  edge  of  the  first  at  its  north-west  end 
than  at  its  south-east,  the  respective  measurements  being  30  feet  and  47 
feet. 


1 30  MR  Taylor's  cylinders. 

of  10  feet,  with  red  kUu-balced  bricks,  but  tlie  whole 
mass  of  the  interior  is  built  of  partially  burnt,  or  sun-dried 
bricks.  Those  of  the  lower  story  are  smaller  than  those 
in  the  upper,  and  are  cemented  with  bitumen,  while  the 
latter  are  fixed  with  ordinaiy  lime  mortar.  These  differ- 
ences arise  from  the  fact  tihat  the  two  stories  were  not 
erected  by  the  same  monarch.  The  whole  surface  is 
pierced  with  oblong  apertures  resembling  those  at  the 
Birs  Nimrdd,  Akker  Kuf,  El-Heimar,  and  numerous  other 
Chaldsean  edifices. 

Subsequently  to  this  visit,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  excavations  were  undertaken  in  1854  for  the 
British  Museum  at  the  Milgeyer  by  my  friend  ]\Ir  Taylor, 
her  Majesty's  Vice-Consul  at  Busrah,  while  I  was  myseU 
engaged  at  Warka  for  the  Assyrian  Excavation  Fund. 
I  again  took  the  opportunity  of  revisiting  the  site.  Mr 
Taylor,"^'  with  astonishing  patience  and  perseverance, 
penetrated  through  the  solid  mass  of  brick-work  to  the 
very  heart  and  base  of  the  edifice  without  discovering  any- 
thing to  reward  his  labours,  or  to  throw  light  on  its  con- 
struction or  object ;  until,  in  excavating  at  the  south 
corner  of  the  upper  story,  he  found,  at  a  depth  of  six 
feet  below  the  surface,  a  perfect  inscribed  cylinder,  stand- 
ing on  one  extremity  in  a  niche  formed  by  the  omission 
of  one  of  the  bricks  in  the  layer.  He  afterwards  sank 
shafts  at  the  other  corners,  and  secured  a  precisely  similar 
record  from  each,  all  of  which  are  now  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum.  This  discovery  at  Milgeyer  con^dnced 
him  that  the  commemorative  cylinders  of  the  founders 
were  always  deposited  at  the  corners  of  Babylonian  edi- 
fices. With  this  knowledge  before  him.  Sir  Henry  Raw- 
hnson,  in  the  following  autumn,  at  once  disinterred  his 
beautiful  cylinders  of  Nebuchadnezzar  from  the  corners 

*  See  that  gentleman's  Memoir  on  the  result  of  his  excavations,  iu  the 
•Tournal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xv.,  p.  260. 


UR  OF  THE  CHALDEES  (1)  131 

of  one  of  tlie  lower  platforms  at  the  Bits  Nimnid,  to  the 
2;reat  amazement  of  his  Arab  workmen/' 

From  his  examination  of  the  numerous  brick  and 
cylinder  inscriptions  obtained  at  Miigeyer,  Sir  Henry 
Kawlinson  reo-ards  this  as  one  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the 
very  earliest,  of  the  sites  colonized  by  that  Ethioj^ic  or 
Scythic  invasion,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made.t  Tliese  records  bear  the  names  of  a  series  of  kings 
from  Urukh,  B.C.  2230,  to  Nabonidus,  B.C.  540.  Among 
others,  is  that  of  Kudur-mapula  or  Chedorlaomer.  The 
temple  was  dedicated  to  Sin  or  "  the  moon,"  which 
element  was  preserved  by  the  Greeks  in  the  name 
Mesene,  applied  by  them  to  the  surroimding  region  ; 
and  also  in  that  of  Camarina,  derived  from  the  Arabic 
word  kamar,  "  the  moon,"  assigned  by  Eupolemus  to 
either  Miigeyer  or  Warka.  The  most  important  identifi- 
cation, however,  is  that  of  Miigeyer  with  the  Biblical  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees,  which  Sii-  Henry  Eawlinson|  supposes  to 
be  complete,  from  having  read  the  name  Hiir  upon  the 
cylinders.  In  support  of  this  proposed  identification,  he 
states  that  one  particular  parish  of  this  place  was  called 
Ihra,  from  which  he  supposes  Abraham  to  have  set  out 
on  his  journey  to  Canaan,  and  from  whence  originated 
the  word  Hebi^ew.^  This  appellation  is  usually  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  Hcher,  the  alleged  ancestor  of  Abraham, 
or  from  a  Hebrew  verb  which  signifies  to  pass  over,  in 
consequence  of  the  patriarch  having  crossed  the  Euphrates. 
This  latter,  however,  cannot  be  the  correct  derivation, 

*  See  the  "Athenaeum,"  No.  1421,  for  Jan.  20,  1855,  p.  84. 

t  At  page  95. 

X  This  great  authority  has  elsewhere  frequently  expressed  his  belief  that 
Warka  is  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  deriving  his  opinion  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
known  to  the  Talmudists  and  early  Arabs  as  the  birthplace  of  Abraham, 
and  that  it  is  even  named  Ur  by  the  early  Arab  Geogi'aphers.  See  "  Jour- 
nal of  the  Eoyal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xii.,  p.  481  ;  and  "  Twenty-ninth  An- 
nual Eeport,"  p.  16. 

§  See  "Proceedings  of  Royal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  i,  p.  47. 


132  BELSHAZZAR. 

because,  whether  Abraham  previously  resided  at  Miigeyer 
or  Warka,  it  would  have  been  unnecessary  to  pass  over 
the  great  river,  if  in  his  time  it  flowed,  as  some  suppose, 
considerably  eastward  of  those  places  and  joined  the 
Tio-ris,  as  before  stated,  at  Kut-el-Amd,ra.  The  above 
proposed  derivation  of  the  word  is  therefore  equally  rea- 
sonable with  one  of  the  two  usually  adopted  ;  but  at  the 
same  time,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  ordinary  accep- 
tation of  Hebrew  as  a  patronymic  from  Heber  is  still 
more  worthy  of  credit. 

The  cylinder  inscriptions  of  Miigeyer  are  invaluable 
documents  in  confirming  the  authenticity  and  truth  of 
Scripture.  They  not  only  inform  us  that  Nabonidus,  last 
king  of  Babylon,  repaired  the  Great  Temple  of  the  Moon 
at  Hur,  but  they  also  explain  who  Belshazzar  was,  con- 
cerning whom  the  early  Bible  critics  have  in  vain  endea- 
voured to  reconcile  conflicting  statements.  In  the  Book 
of  Daniel,'"'  he  is  alluded  to  as  the  king  of  the  Chaldees 
when  Babylon  was  taken  by  the  united  armies  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians.  The  account  of  Berosus  does  not,  however, 
agree  with  that  of  Scripture.  It  states  that  Nabonidus, 
after  being  utterly  routed  in  the  open  plains  by  Cyrus, 
shut  himself  up  in  the  city  of  Borsippa,  but  was  soon 
obliged  to  surrender  his  person  to  the  conqueror,  t  From 
Daniel,  therefore,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  Belshazzar 
was  the  last  Chaldaean  monarch ;  while  Nabonidus  is 
represented  in  the  same  capacity  by  Berosus.  Hero- 
dotus only  adds  to  the  difficulty  by  calling  Belshazzar 
and  his  father  Labynetus — which  name  is  certainly  a  cor- 
ruption of  Nabonidus.| 

Sir  Henry  Kawlinson's  reading  of  the  Miigeyer  cylin- 
ders entirely  reconciles  these  discrepances.     The  records 

♦  Daniel  v.  30.  t  In  Joseph.  "  Contr.  Apion.,"  i,  20. 

t  It  is  likewise  stated  in  Joseplins,  Ajitiq.,  z.  11,  2,  that  Baltasar  waa 
called  Naboandel  by  the  Babylonians, 


J 


CEMETERY.  133 

distinctly  state  that  Bel-shar-ezer  (Belshazzar)  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Nabonidus,  and  that  he  was  admitted  to  a 
share  of  the  government. 

When  Cyrus  took  Nabonidus,  Belshazzar  was  regent  or 
governor  of  Babylon,  and,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
king  of  the  Chaldees. 

Amongst  other  discoveries  made  by  Mr  Taylor  at 
Mugeyer  was  that  of  a  house  or  oratory,  in  a  small 
mound  covered  with  clay  and  scoria,  near  the  eastern 
angle  of  the  great  temple,  erected  on  a  mound  or  foun- 
dation of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  ground  plan  of  the 
edifice  is  that  of  a  cross.  The  exterior  was  ornamented 
with  perpendicular  stepped  recesses,  thickly  coated  with 
bitumen.  This  coating  may  have  arisen  from  the  oozing 
out  of  that  material  between  the  bricks  during  the  de- 
struction of  the  edifice  by  fire,  of  which  there  were  evident 
symptoms.  Many  of  the  outer  faces  of  the  bricks  were 
insciibed.  A  thin  coating  of  enamel  or  g)rpsum-plaster 
appears  to  have  been  laid  over  the  surface,  upon  which 
the  characters  were  stamped.  These  were  remarkably 
fine  ;  but  the  material  was  too  brittle  to  admit  of  their 
being  well  preserved,  and  chipped  off  with  a  touch  from 
the  finger-nail — a  sufficient  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
edifice  in  which  these  bricks  occurred,  because,  in  like 
manner,  they  could  not  have  been  extracted  from  any 
other  place  without  damage  to  the  inscriptions. 

This  building,  too,  has  settled  the  important  architec- 
tural question,  whether  the  Babylonians  were  acquainted 
with  the  arch.  Two  regularly  constructed  semicircular 
arches,  running  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  walls, 
are  in  admirable  preservation — the  bricks  being  wedge- 
shaped  to  form  the  voussoirs. 

Mr  Taylor  also  ascertained  that  the  rest  of  the  oval 
space  occupied  by  the  ruins  was  a  cemetery  of  the  primi- 
tive ages ;  his  account  of  the  tombs  and  their  contents 


134  FRAGMENTS. 

forms  by  far  the  most  interesting  portion  of  his  memoir 
on  the  subject.""'  As  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to 
similar  objects  in  the  account  of  my  own  researches,  it 
is  unnecessary  to  allude  to  them  furtlier  in  this  place, 
except  to  remark  that  they  are  all  referable  to  the  Baby- 
lonian epoch. 

About  two  hundred  yards  from  the  north-east  side  of  the 
great  temple,  Mr  Churchill  discovered  three  large  blocks 
of  black  granite  projecting  from  the  ground.  On  clearing 
the  earth  from  around  them,  some  parts  exhibited  a  fine 
polish,  but  they  were  too  much  broken  to  admit  of  their 
original  form  being  distinguished.  They  probably  be- 
longed to  an  altar.  One  bore  a  fragment  of  inscription  ; 
another  had  a  plain  upper  surface,  with  a  moulding, 
eight  inches  in  depth  rounded  off  at  the  angles,  passing 
along  the  top  of  each  side  :  two  opposite  surfaces  bore  in 
high  relief  an  ornament  resembling  the  capital  letter  A 
reversed,  and  supporting  the  moulding  :  of  the  other 
two  sides,  one  was  plain  and  the  other  broken.  Like  the 
fragments  of  the  statue  at  Hammam,  they  probably  be- 
longed to  the  shrine  of  the  deity,  which  stood  upon  the 
principal  building.t  From  the  summit  of  Mdgeyer  are 
distinctly  discernible  the  ruins  of  Ab\i-Shehreyn,  also  sub- 
sequently examined  by  Mr  Taylor. 

During  the  time  we  were  exploring  the  ruins,  the 
Turkish  escort  passed  us  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three 
miles.  Some  of  the  most  intelhgent  officers,  seeing  the 
huge  edifice  on  their  flank,  formed  a  small  party  and 
galloped  towards  it.  Having  reached  within  a  mile  of 
Miigeyer,  they  were  surprised  to  observe  two  or  three 
human  beings  upon  the  summit  apparently  regarding  the 

♦  "Notes  on  the  Ruins  of  M6geyer,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  vol.  v.,  p.  260. 

t  Mr  Churchill's  drawings,  with  copies  of  the  iuscriptions  here  discovered, 
were  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 


DEFEAT  OF  THE  ESCORT.  135 

movements  of  the  troops.  Under  the  impression  that 
the  place  was  a  deserted  ruin,  this  unexpected  apparition 
alarmed  them.  They  halted,  and  watched  for  a  few 
minutes.  Two  more  figures  were  seen  scrambling  up 
from  the  opposite  side,  which  served  to  confirm  their 
fears.  Eiding  back  with  all  speed,  they  gave  the  alarm 
that  a  large  body  of  Axabs  were  lying  in  ambush  to 
attack  the  party.  Preparations  were  therefore  duly  made 
for  a  stout  resistance.  The  mules,  servants,  and  baggage 
were  placed  in  the  centre,  the  troops  arranged  around 
them  in  square,  the  four  guns  placed  at  the  corners  so  as 
to  receive  the  enemy  with  a  cross  fire.  Thus  in  a  compact 
mass,  they  marched  rapidly  across  the  desert  to  Ai^jah, 
where  we  rejoined  them,  and  then  for  the  first  time 
learned  the  commotion  and  alarm  that  we  had  unwit- 
tingly occasioned.  It  appeared  that  while  I  was  engaged 
with  Mr  Churchill  in  taking  measurements  and  notes  on 
the  ruins,  some  of  our  escort  had  climbed  upon  the  sum- 
mit, and  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  an  ambush  was  pre- 
pared for  the  Turks.  It  was  a  subject  of  considerable 
merriment  for  the  rest  of  the  journey,  that  two  English- 
men, one  servant,  half-a-dozen  Bashi  Baziiks,  and  an  Arab, 
had  caused  the  retreat  of  a  squadron  of  well-armed  Turkish 
cavaby ! 

From  Arjah,  we  all  travelled  in  company  to  Swaij,  the 
usual  residence  of  the  Sheikh  of  the  Muntefik — a  distance 
of  only  a  few  miles — where  we  rested  for  the  remainder 
of  the  day,  and  made  arrangements  for  crossing  the  desert 
to  Busrah.  Swaij  is  within  a  mile  of  the  Arab  town  of 
Suk-esh-Sheioukh  ;  but,  as  is  weU-known,  an  Arab  chief 
infinitely  prefers  the  freedom  and  security  of  the  open 
country  to  the  treachery  of  town  walls.  In  accordance 
with  this  feeling,  Fahad,  the  then  Sheikh  of  the  powerful 
tribe  of  the  IMuntefik,  pitched  his  tent,  and  held  his  royal 
state,  like  his  predecessors,  at  Swaij.     His  immediate 


136  THE  SHEIKH  OF  THE  MUNTEFIK. 

retainers  were  encamped  around  him,  and  thus  he  lived 
with  his  flocks  and  herds  patriarchal  as  Abraham  him- 
self. He  behaved  with  princelike  hospitality,  supplying 
the  whole  of  the  caravan  and  troops  with  provisions, 
not  only  for  that  day,  but  for  the  three  days'  journey 
before  us. 

He  exhibited  his  independence,  however,  by  receiv- 
ing the  Turkish  officers  witlv^ut  rising,  and  scarcely 
deigning  to  speak  to  them — an  indignity  which  they 
did  not  readily  forget,  and  which,  it  is  said,  in  common 
with  other  causes  of  complaint,  shortly  afterwards  re- 
sulted in  his  being  removed  by  order  of  the  government. 
He  also  issued  an  order  that  no  Turkish  officer  or  soldier 
on  horseback  should  enter  the  town  of  Siik-esh-Sheioukh 
upon  any  pretext. 

It  was  my  intention  to  have  paid  my  respects  to  this 
Eling  of  the  Arabs,  but  he  unfortunately  retired  to  his 
harem  sooner  than  usual,  probably  to  shew  his  dignity, 
and  also  to  rid  himself  of  his  Turkish  guests,  who  did  not 
fail  to  remind  him  of  the  suzerainty  of  the  Porte.  On 
sending  my  regrets  at  not  having  had  the  opportunity 
of  waiting  upon  him,  I  received  a  gracious  answer — a 
cup  of  hot  bitter  coffee — and  a  gracious  visit  from  his 
secretary. 

At  Siik-esh-Sheioukh  the  Bashi  Bazilk  horsemen  and 
our  Dhefyr  guides  left  us,  carrying  with  them  ample  pre- 
sents for  their  services.  Mubarek,  who  on  first  quitting 
Baghdad  was  rather  in  the  way  than  otherwise,  proved 
eventually  not  only  useful  as  a  guide  but  as  a  safeguard 
from  the  Bedouins.  He  soon  became  attached  to  our 
party,  and  sang  as  merrily  as  his  cousin  ]\Iaydf  On 
making  him  a  present,  I  remarked  that — as  he  had  eaten 
the  bread  of  the  Firenghi,  been  saved  from  his  enemies 
the  Affej,  and  treated  well  during  the  journey — I 
hoped  he  would  not  forget  these    circumstances,   but 


THIRSTY  RIDE.  137 

return  good  for  good,  by  looking  after  tlie  safety  of  any 
unfortunate  European  who  might  happen  to  fall  into  the 
clutches  of  his  tribe.  Drawing  himself  up  to  his  full 
height,  he  replied  : — "  0  Beg  !  the  Dhefyris  have  heard  in 
their  deserts  that  the  Englizi  speaks  the  truth,  but  they 
have  never  met  with  such  a  wonder.  I  shall  tell  them, 
inshallah !  on  my  return,  Avhat  I  did  not  before  credit, 
that  the  Englizi  never  lies — his  word  is  as  straight  as  my 
spear !  For  the  kindness  you  have  shewn  me,  the  Dhefyr 
will  prove  his  gratitude  when  a  Firenghi  crosses  his  path  ! 
For  your  sake  he  shall  be  my  brother ! "  The*  last  1  heard 
of  the  wild  fellow  was,  that,  with  the  present  received, 
he  had  purchased  a  swift-footed  deliil,  and  set  out  to  re- 
join his  tribe  on  a  plundering  expedition. 

Between  Siik-esh-Sheioukh  and  Busrah  is  a  difitance  of 
about  seventy  mUes  across  an  undulating  tract  of  gravel 
and  g}^isum.  A  few  wells  alone  supply  small  parties 
with  bad  brackish  water,  but  these  were  totally  insufficient 
for  so  many  men  and  horses  as  composed  our  caravan ; 
it  was,  therefore,  necessary  to  strike  a  more  easterly 
course  towards  the  marshes  of  the  Euphrates,  After 
suffering  thirty-two  hours'  tliirst  under  a  hot  sun, 
our  poor  animals  were  completely  exhausted,  and  could 
with  difficulty  be  prevented  from  over-filling  themselves, 
Avhen  they  reached  the  inundation.  Three  troop-horses 
died  in  the  course  of  the  night  from  the  effect  of  drink- 
ing to  repletion. 

I  need  not  detain  my  readers  with  an  account  of  the 
remainder  of  the  journey.  We  reached  Zobeir  in  safety, 
crossed  the  great  inundation  which  threatens  shortly  to 
overwhelm  the  declining  city  of  Busrah,  passed  through 
its  mouldeiing  walls  and  pestilential  atmosphere,  and 
floated  down  its  narrow  inlet  shrouded  in  groves  of 
pomegranates,  dates,  and  acacias  to  the  noble  Shat-el- 
Arab — the  combined  stream  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 


138  BUSK  AH  AND  THE  SHAT-EL-ARAB. 

Fleets  of  mercliant  vessels  a  few  years  ago  used  to  anchor 
in  the  deep  channel  of  this  magnificent  river  ;  but,  owing 
to  the  neglect  and  ignorance  of  the  Turkish  authorities, 
commerce  is  now  at  a  stand-still,  and  the  only  vessels, 
which  annually  enter  the  commodious  port,  are  two 
belonging  to  English  merchants  resident  at  Baghdad,  and 
occasionally  a  frigate  of  the  East  India  Company's  squad- 
ron in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

From  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Shat-el-Ardb,  a  six  hours* 
ride  across  the  desert  brought  us  to  the  camp  of  the  fron- 
tier commissioners,  outside  the  extensive  date-groves  of 
Mohammerah  in  Persia^ 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

Plans  and  Preparations  for  Excavating  in  Warka — The  Party — Arrival 
at  Suk-esli-Sheioiikli — FahSd,  Sheikh  of  the  Muntefik — Reception 
Tent — Falcons — The  Letter  and  Escort. 

As  soon  as  Colonel  Williams  was  made  acquainted  with 
the  results  of  this  journey,  and  had  examined  the  relics, 
plans,  and  drawings  brought  from  Warka,  he  readily 
Hstened  to  my  suggestions  that  excavations  should  be 
conducted  on  a  small  scale  at  those  ruins.  To  his  libe- 
rality and  patronage  of  science  are  due  the  first-fruits 
of  Chaldsean  exploration.  Supplying  the  necessary  funds 
for  the  purpose,  he  directed  me,  after  a  few  days'  rest, 
to  return  to  Warka,  with  instructions  more  especially  to 
procure  specimens  of  the  remarkable  coffins  of  the  loca- 
lity, and  such  objects  as  might  be  easily  packed  for  trans- 
mission to  the  British  Museum. 

I  hastened  to  Busrah,  purchased  implements,  and  laid 
in  a  Httle  store  of  trifling  articles — such  as  keffiehs, 
dresses,  tobacco,  pipes,  needles,  dates,  &c.,  which  I  might 
give  to  the  Arabs  as  presents,  or  barter  for  small  anti- 
quities in  their  possession. 

On  setting  out  from  Busrah,  my  party  consisted  of 
nine.  First,  my  servant  Ovannes,  a  shrewd  Armenian 
Christian,  who  spoke  seven  of  tlie  native  languages  with 
fluency,  and  who  served  me  faithfully  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  frontier  commission ;  he  had  previously 
been  in  the  service  of  Colonel  Kawlinson,  and  spent 
the  greatest  part  of  his  life  with  Englishmen  ;  he  was 


140  THE  MUNTEFIK  RECEPTION-TENT. 

one  of  the  most  thoughtful,  useful  fellows  I  met  with 
during  nearly  six  years'  experience  in  the  East.  There 
were,  besides,  a  edwas,  a  groom,  a  tent-pitcher  who  also 
acted  as  cook,  three  muleteers,  and  two  guides,  with 
fifteen  horses  and  mules.  The  disHke  exhibited  by  the 
Arabs  to  the  Turkish  troops  told  me  that  I  should  be 
safer  and  more  welcome  alone.  I  therefore  declined  to 
apply  for  letters  from  the  Pasha  of  Busrah,  and  set  out 
without  so  much  as  either  asking  or  requiring  his  aid  or 
protection. 

After  a  tedious  and  uninteresting  journey  of  little  more 
than  three  days,  without  adventure  worth  recording,  we 
once  more  arrived  at  Suk-esh-Sheioukh.  The  cawas  was 
sent  forward  with  a  message  to  the  Sheikh  of  the  Munte- 
fik  at  Swaij,  that  one  of  the  English  officers,  who  had 
passed  through  a  few  days  previously  with  the  Turkish 
troops,  desired  an  interview  with  him.  On  my  arrival,  I 
learned  that  FahM  was  in  his  harem,  and  about  to  per- 
form his  devotions,  it  being  just  mid-day  ;  but  he  sent  me  a 
polite  invitation  into  his  reception-tent,  which  stood  upon 
the  open  desert,  accessible  to  the  whole  tribe.  It  was  a 
large  white  canvas  tent  supported  on  two  poles,  with  a 
lining  of  pink  calico  and  double  roof,  the  lower  of  which 
served  as  a  kind  of  canopy,  and  was  edged  "with  what  had 
been  gold  fringe,  but  which  had  now  assumed  every  colour 
of  the  rainbow.  This  tent  was  a  recent  present  from  the 
new  pasha,  when  friendship  was  re-established  between 
the  noble  house  of  Muntefik  and  the  government  of 
Baghdad  on  the  accession  of  Abdi  Pasha  to  power.  The 
sides  of  the  tent  were  spread  with  narrow  carpets,  and, 
at  the  upper  end,  the  seat  of  honour  w^as  indicated  by  a 
large  cushion  of  striped  silk  backed  mth  two  pillows  of 
blue  plush.  Upon  these  I  took  up  my  position,  and 
endeavoured  to  amuse  myself  until  the  sheikh  had  con- 
cluded his  prayers. 


SHEIKH  FAHAD.  141 

An  ugly  black  slave  seems  usually  chosen  to  perform 
the  office  of  kawaji  to  a  great  sheikh,  as  though  his 
colour  were  peculiarly  fitted  for  presiding  over  cinders 
and  cooking  utensils.  This  worthy  soon  made  his  ap- 
pearance, and  forthwith  proceeded  with  his  important 
functions,  surrounded  by  his  family  of  coffeepots  close 
outside  the  tent.  Attracted  by  the  sight  of  these 
preliminaries,  and  knowing  from  them  that  some 
guest  had  arrived  to  the  tribe,  the  elders  and  warriors 
began  to  collect,  sit  down  in  the  tent,  and  stare  with 
untired  gaze  at  the  strangely  accoutred  traveller.  After 
an  interval  of  half-an-hour  the  sheikh  was  announced, 
and  all  rose  to  receive  him  while  yet  distant  some  hun- 
dred paces  from  the  tent.  Two  or  three  of  the  assembly 
tried  by  repeated  gestures  to  induce  me  to  follow  their 
example,  but,  as  dignity  would  have  been  compromised 
by  a  too  hasty  show  of  obedience,  I  retained  my  seat,  to 
their  utmost  consternation,  until  Faliad  was  close  at  hand. 
Although  his  harem  was  not  500  yards  from  the  recep- 
tion-tent, he  rode  a  magnificent  black  mare,  hung  round 
with  red  tassels  and  Arab  paraphernalia,  and  was 
attended  by  about  fifty  of  his  immediate  followers.  In 
approaching,  he  saluted  the  crowd,  and  was  received  by 
each  man  present  with  his  hand  on  his  heart,  but  a  proud 
inchnation  of  his  body,  as  much  as  to  imply,  "  We  reve- 
rence you  as  the  head  of  our  tribe  ;  but  you  are,  never- 
theless, only  a  man  like  ourselves."  While  he  dismounted 
and  advanced  towards  me,  an  opportunity  was  afforded 
of  observing  his  appearance. 

Sheikh  Fahad  (the  tiger)  was  a  tall,  stout,  handsome 
man,  forty-five  or  fifty  years  of  age,  with  regular  features, 
and  the  slightly  aquiline  nose  so  peculiar  to  the  high-class 
Arab.  His  forehead  was  lofty  and  expansive,  full  of 
thought  and  energy.  The  expressive  black  eyes,  as  they 
glanced  from  one  to  another  of  the  party,  beamed  witli 


142  SHEIKH  FAHAd's  RECEPTION. 

kindness  and  good  humour ;  but  it  was  not  difficult  to 
conceive  them  assuming  a  very  different  aspect  on  other 
occasions.      Conscious   of    his    importance,    high   birth, 
and  dignity,  he  bestowed  his  salaams  with  the  grace  and 
pride  of  a  monarch  saluting  his  abject  slaves,  rather  than 
as  the  head  of  a  little  republic  where  fraternity,  liberty, 
and  equahty  prevailed.     Yet  the  Munteiik  were  proud  of 
their  sheikh.     He  was  just  such  a  man  as  a  powerful  and 
warlike  race  desire  for  their  chief.     He  was  brave  in 
battle,  sage  in  council,  hospitable  and  generous  ;  but  un- 
bearable in  his  demeanour  towards  the  Turks,  whom  he 
treated  with  the  utmost  contempt  and  disdain.    Although 
he  had  recently  sworn  fealty  to  the  pasha  at  Baghdad  in 
humbled  pride,  he  now  assumed  the  state  and  dignity  of 
an  independent  prince  in  his  native  wilds.     It  was  the 
true  iVrab  feeling  which  induced  him  to  treat  the  Turkish 
officers  with  such  rudeness  on  their  late  visit,  mingled 
probably  with  a  desire  to  gain  more  effectually  the  hearts 
of  his  tribe — ^to  the  sheikhship  of  which  he  had  but  recently 
succeeded  by  the  death  of  his  brother  Bender.     He  wore 
the  usual  striped  keffieh,  and  black  abba  embroidered  on 
one  shoulder  with  gold. 

He  bade  me  welcome  with  the  greatest  affability  as  we 
seated  ourselves  on  the  silken  lahdf.  A  salaam  to  the 
assembly  was  the  signal  for  all  to  be  seated.  Coffee 
and  pipes  were  duly  handed  to  the  principal  parties,  and 
the  conference  then  commenced.  My  object  in  visiting 
him  was  to  secure  his  protection  while  in  his  territories. 
EJaowing  that  Arabs  care  nothing  for  the  antiquities  of 
their  deserts,  provided  they  are  not  golden  treasures,  I 
concluded  that  it  was  best  to  be  frank  and  open  with  him. 

He  was  evidently  in  good  humour — a  white  day  on  his 
calendar — so,  in  oriental  style,  I  endeavoured  to  gain  his 
good  opinion  with  a  few  pointed  compliments.  I  thanked 
him  for  his  attention  and  hospitality  on  my  former  visit. 


INTERVIEW  WITK  SHEIKH  PAHAD.  143 

and  regretted  not  liaving  had  the  opportunity  of  person- 
ally expressing  my  obligations  on  that  occasion  ;  adding, 
that  a  favour  shewn  to  me  was,  in  fact,  an  exhibition  of 
friendship  and  esteem  towards  the  Sultan  of  my  country. 
This  little  speech  had  the  desired  effect.  He  was  thence- 
forward, in  Eastern  phrase,  "  my  friend,  my  servant,  my 
— anything  I  pleased !  What  could  he  do  for  me  V  On 
expressing  my  desire  to  visit  Warka,  and  that  he  would 
send  some  of  his  people  to  accompany  and  protect  me,  he 
instantly  rej)lied  : — "  I  am  your  slave.  Some  Arabs  are 
dogs,  but  the  tribes  of  the  Muntefik  are  my  servants. 
You  and  your  property  are  as  safe  with  them,  as  in  the 
shelter  of  my  own  tent."  He  immediately  called  two  of 
his  nobles  by  name,  who  stepped  forward,  made  their 
salaams,  and  received  his  orders  to  bring  their  mares  to 
the  tent.  During  their  absence,  the  following  conversa- 
tion ensued  : — "  Do  many  Europeans  pass  through  Siik- 
esh-Sheioukh "?" — "No!  what  should  induce  them  to 
come  so  far  from  their  own  homes  in  Firengistan  V — 
"  The  Arab  loves  the  shade  of  his  own  tent,  and  the 
Firenghi  is  equally  attached  to  the  land  of  his  birth,  but 
the  latter  travels  into  far  distant  countries,  to  see  the 
world,  gain  instruction,  and  impart  it  to  his  friends  on 
his  retiu-n.  Some  travel  on  business — others  for  pleasure. 
Many,  like  myself,  are  partial  to  visiting  old  ruins,  like 
Babel,  NifFar,  and  Warka.  The  Arabs  think  us  mad  for 
our  pains  \" — *'  Perhaps  so.  What  is  the  use  of  your  see- 
ing them  V — "  They  afford  us  many  relics — such  as  writing 
on  bricks — which  throw  light  on  the  past  not  otherwise 
obtainable.  From  them  we  learn  that  our  forefathers 
were  yours  also  !"  He  seemed  to  doubt  this  fact,  for  how 
could  a  Ghyawr  be  related  to  a  good  Mussulman !  At  this 
stage  of  the  conversation,  one  of  the  bystanders  stepped 
forward,  and  said  that  I  had  already  been  to  Warka,  and 
got  some  small  antiques  from  the  Mddan,  "for  which, 


144  THE  ARAB  LEVEE. 

mdsliallali !  the  Firenghl  paid  nine  kerdns,  when  they 
were  not  worth  a  pice.  By  Allah  !  what  I  say  is  true !" 
Fahad  appeared  pleased  that  I  had  spent  money  among 
his  people  ;  but  his  informant,  after  true  Arab  fashion, 
had  magnified  the  amount  ninefold !  The  sheikh,  how- 
ever, understood  the  object  of  this  information,  and  said, 
laughingly  : — "  You  had  better  go  with  the  Beg,  and  see 
if  you  can't  find  something  worthy  of  his  acceptance,  for 
which  he  will  pay  you  at  the  same  rate." 

The  secretary  was  sent  for,  and  ordered  to  write  a 
letter  to  Sheikh  Debbi,  at  Duraji,  instructing  him  to  re- 
ceive me  safely  across  the  Euphrates,  and  to  attend  me  to 
Warka,  Sinkara  (which  place  had  not  been  mentioned), 
and  any  ruin  I  desired  to  visit  within  the  limits  of  his 
jurisdiction.  When  I  might  be  pleased  to  retiu-n,  he  was 
to  see  me  again  safely  conveyed  across  the  Euphrates. 

Dimng  all  this  time  the  Arabs  continued  to  arrive, 
until  there  were  about  two  hundred  within  the  tent. 
Each  man  on  entering  advanced  into  the  centre,  made 
his  salaam  to  the  sheikh,  and  then  retired  to  take  his 
place,  either  among  the  free  Arabs  who  sat  on  the  narrow 
carpets,  or  among  the  servants  and  slaves  who  stood 
behind.  A  large  semicircular  space  was  thus  left  in 
front  of  the  chief  It  was  highly  amusing  to  watch 
the  free  Arab,  marching  straight  to  a  spot  where  it  ap- 
peared impossible  for  him  to  wedge  himself  into  the 
crowded  row.  The  occupants,  however,  invariably  arose, 
and  in  an  instant  the  wedge  was  inserted  and  seen  squat- 
ting upon  the  carpet.  The  decorum  of  the  whole  assembly, 
and  the  implicit  obedience  and  respect  paid  to  the  chief, 
struck  me  particularly.  If  such  were  not  mere  outward 
shew,  and  faith  were  really  to  be  placed  in  his  followers, 
the  Sheikh  of  the  Muntefik  is  no  mean  personage,  and  is 
not  to  be  despised  by  the  Turkish  or  any  other  govern- 
ment.     Better  to  have  him  a  friend  than  a  foe.     It  is 


THE  sheikh's  CHARGE.  145 

asserted  that  in  a  few  hours  he  is  able  to  raise  a  body  of 
50,000  well-armed  men. 

Fahad  was  an  ardent  sportsman,  and  kept  his  leash  of 
falcons.  As  a  portion  of  his  state,  the  beautiful  birds  were 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  area  ;  while  the  falconer,  in 
his  crimson  dress  and  plaited  locks,  shewed  off  the  docility 
and  grace  of  his  pet  birds,  amid  the  frequent  plaudits  of 
the  sheikh  and  the  assembled  Muntefijis. 

At  length  the  secretary  finished  the  letter,  and  the  seal 
of  the  sheikh  was  duly  affixed  thereto.  The  two  guides, 
having  brought  their  black  mares  to  the  tent,  were  then 
called  in,  and  received  the  letter  in  charge  with  the  in- 
junction : — "  You  see  this  Beg  sitting  by  my  side ;  attend 
him  wherever  he  pleases  to  go,  let  him  do  what  he  wishes 
at  Warka  and  Sinkara,  and  take  care  to  bring  him  back 
in  safetv  to  this  tent."  Then  tm^ninsc  to  me  he  said  : — 
"  All  that  you  required  is  done."  Taking  this  as  a  hint, 
I  returned  thanks,  paid  my  salaam,  and  departed — the 
sheikh  rising  as  much  as,  in  his  opinion,  a  strict  Mussul- 
man consistently  could  do  towards  a  Christian.  I  left 
the  tent  much  pleased  with  my  reception  and  the  result 
of  the  interview. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Winter — Camel -foals — Tuweyba  Tribe — Old  Friends — Harassing  La- 
bours— Dissatisfaction — Budda,  the  Grave-digger  and  Gold-finder — 
Arab  Kindness — Warka  in  1854 — Difficulties — Scarcity  of  Food  and 
Water — Patriarchal  Life  in  Abraham's  Country — Misery  and  Rapa- 
city— Sand-storms, 

It  was  now  winter  in  the  Arab  plains,  and  tlie  thermo- 
meter stood  below  freezing-point  as  we  advanced  north- 
ward from  the  sheikh's  encampment.  On  quitting  the 
date-groves,  clouds  concealed  the  sun,  and  the  wind 
blew  so  keen  and  cuttingly  across  the  level  desert,  that 
it  was  necessary  frequently  to  dismount  and  walk,  that 
the  blood  might  be  kept  in  proper  circulation.  Al- 
though I  had  crossed  the  snows  of  the  Alj^s  and  the 
Taurus,  I  never  before  experienced  such  an  intensity  of 
cold.  I  was  almost  paralyzed,  not  from  the  lowness  of 
the  temperature,  but  from  the  passage  of  the  \^dnd  over 
the  soil  impregnated  with  saltpetre  ;  we  were  as  if  in  a 
spacious  refrigerator.  The  Arabs,  with  their  bare  feet 
resting  in  large  iron  stirrups,  were  completely  benumbed 
and  useless,  frequently  falling  from  their  faithful  mares, 
and  requiring  to  be  again  lifted  into  their  saddles. 
AiVTierever  we  passed  an  encampment,  a  wretched  camels'- 
dung  fire  imparted  a  degree  of  warmth  to  the  half-clad 
Arabs,  which  only  caused  them  to  feel  the  cold  more 
acutely.  They  sat  shivering  and  grinning,  their  faces 
alone  visible  from  beneath  their  rags,  and  bearing  more 
resemblance  to  monkeys  than  living  human  beings.     All 


CRUEL  PUNISHMENTS.  147 

had  dreadful  coughs,  and  their  constant  barking  jarred 
horribly  on  the  ear.  It  is  almost  incredible  that  the  Arab 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  can  endure  such  extremes  of 
temperature  as  there  prevail — at  one  season  scorched 
under  a  burning  sun,  at  another  almost  frozen  to  death. 
The  same  coarse  abba  which  shades  him  from  the  heat  in 
summer  is  his  only  protection  against  the  cold  of  winter ! 
We  again  crossed  the  Euphrates. 

The  Sheikh  of  the  JMuntefik  was  at  this  time  about 
taking  stock,  and  the  banks  of  the  river  were  covered  with 
immense  flocks  of  camels,  sheep,  and  cattle.  Many  were 
the  inquiries  made  whether  the  bridge  of  boats  was  yet 
built  which  was  to  convey  them  across  the  great  stream 
to  Swaij.  It  was  the  foaling  season,  and  the  camel-herds 
were  actively  engaged  in  protecting  the  young.  Numbers 
recently  foaled,  and  unable  yet  to  walk,  were  being  care- 
fully carried  in  arms  to  the  tents  for  protection  from  the 
killing  wind. 

On  the  second  day  from  Swaij,  I  alighted  at  the  reed 
muthif  of  Sheikh  Debbi,  at  Diiraji,  whom  I  had  seen  on 
my  previous  visit.  The  Madan  tribes  above  Silk  were 
governed  by  a  deputy  of  Fahad's.  For  many  years  this 
honour— and  profit — were  enjoyed  alternately  by  two 
brothers,  Sa'diln  and  Debbi.  The  former  was  then  in 
power,  and  Debbi  was  his  lieutenant.  In  authority  the 
latter  was  a  great  tyrant,  and  delighted  in  inflicting 
severe  punishments  for  small  crimes.  Many  poor  wretches 
were  shewn  rne  as  instances  of  his  cruelty — one  had  lost 
his  hand,  another  his  foot,  and  a  third  was  hamstrung 
and  appeared  on  crutches  dragging  behind  him  the  use- 
less limb  ! 

Debbi  received  the  great  sheikh's  letter  with  becoming 
respect,  and  did  the  honours  of  hospitality  right  nobly. 
A  few  minutes  sufficed  to  prepare  a  bountiful  meal,  of 
which  I  was  not  sorry  to  partake,  for  the  cold  and  wind 


148  A  DAINTY  MEAL. 

had  given  me  a  ravenous  appetite.  A  dirty  reed  basket 
was  speedily  laid  on  the  ground,  containing  freshly-baked 
flaps  of  bread,  and  the  grilled  shoulders  of  a  young  lamb, 
accompanied  with  a  bowl  of  lebban,  or  soured  milk.  In 
true  Arab  style,  I  set  to  with  fingers  and  teeth — the 
native  knife  and  fork — and  enjoyed  a  delicious  meal. 
My  two  Arab  guards  and  Debbi  himself  seemed  to  do 
the  same,  for,  between  us,  the  eatable  contents  of  the 
basket  effectually  disappeared.  The  bones,  however,  were 
destined  to  undergo  another  polishing,  for,  on  removal 
from  the  banqueting-hall,  I  saw  them  between  the  teeth 
of  two  or  three  Arabs  seated  near  the  entrance,  while  an 
expectant  crowd  stood  round  awaiting  their  turn. 

The  nearest  Arab  encampment  to  the  ruins  of  Warka, 
was  that  belonging  to  the  Tuweyba  tribe  of  the  Benl 
Hacheym,''""  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates, 
at  the  distance  of  six  miles.  To  this,  therefore,  it  was 
arranged  that  I  should  proceed,  and  pitch  my  tent  during 
my  temporary  stay.  Debbi,  in  conformity  with  the  orders 
of  his  liege  lord,  mounted  his  mare  and  accompanied  me. 
We  travelled  north-westward  about  ten  miles,  among  a 
succession  of  ravines  cut  by  the  river  during  its  seasons 
of  flood,  and  ultimately  arrived  at  our  destination. 

I  was  soon  recognised  by  the  Arabs,  who  proved  to  be 
those  I  had  previously  made  acquaintance  with  upon  the 
ruins,  and  from  whom  I  had  purchased  several  antiques. 
Their  bright  eyes  and  smiles  satisfied  me  that  I  was 
regarded  as  a  welcome  guest.  The  sheikh,  Azayiz-es- 
Salem,  was  ill  in  bed,  but  his  son-in-law,  Hennayin,  came 
out  to  greet  me,  and  held  the  bridle  of  my  horse  while  I 

*  The  names  of  the  Benl  Hdcheym  tribes  are — 

1.  Thtidlem  4.  El-Ezowyer  7.  Mtish'dla 

2.  El-bti-Hassdn  5.  El-'Abbds  8.  Jti'aber 

3.  Ez-Zaydd  6.  El-Hadjll  9.  Tuweyba. 

The  last-named  tribe  possesses  about  100  tents,  or  500  souls.  Concerning 
the  other  tribes,  I  could  obtain  no  positive  information. 


THE  TUWEYBA  TRIBE.  149 

dismounted.  One  of  Faliad's  men,  as  a  superior  being, 
addressed  liim  and  the  crowd,  which  unceremoniously 
seated  itself  in  a  circle  around  the  new  comers  : — "  Dogs : 
this  Beg  is  an  officer  of  the  Sultan's  ;  if  any  harm  happens 
to  him,  or  if  the  least  article  belonging  to  him  is  stolen, 
you  and  your  wives  shall  be  taken  with  your  hands 
bound  to  Sheikh  Fahad,  and  you  will  not  soon  forget  the 
punishment  you  will  receive."  All  bowed  their  heads,  in 
implicit  obedience  to  the  great  power,  with  exclamations 
of  "Wallah!"  Hearing  the  guides  giving  imperious 
orders,  I  feared  the  Arabs  might  imagine  they  were  to 
supply  everything  in  Oriental  style — gratis,  and  therefore 
called  the  sheikh's  representative  aside,  to  tell  him  that 
it  was  my  wish  to  pay  for  all  articles,  at  a  reasonable 
price,  and  even  a  little  above  actual  value.  If,  however, 
he  attempted  to  be  exorbitant  in  his  demands,  I  threat- 
ened to  leave  the  settlement  of  his  account  to  the  Sheikh 
of  the  Muntefik.  Hennayin  seemed  to  be  delighted,  but 
in  a  short  time,  Arab-like,  asked  six  shamies  (9s.)  a-day 
for  each  workman,  the  ordinary  wage  lieing  a  tw^elfth 
part  of  that  sum — to  which  he  at  length  decreased  his 
demand. 

On  the  follo^dng  morning  I  started  with  a  party  of 
excavators  for  the  ruins,  and  continued  my  labours  for 
three  weeks.  My  work  was  harassing  in  the  extreme. 
At  sunrise  I  set  out  with  the  Arabs  for  the  mounds,  a 
distance  of  six  miles,  and  never  left  them  during  the 
whole  day.  The  soil  was  so  light  that,  in  w^alking  from 
trench  to  trench,  my  feet  were  buried  at  each  step.  The 
Arabs  required  constant  direction  and  watching.  It  was 
usually  long  after  sunset  ere  we  returned  to  camp, 
stumbling  every  instant  over  the  broken  ground.  A  few 
minutes  sufficed  for  me  to  swallow  the  food  my  cook  had 
prepared,  when,  almost  tired  to  death,  I  was  obliged  to 
lay  down  plans  from  mv  rough  notes,  write  my  journal, 


150  DISSATISFACTION  IN  CAMP. 

and  pack  the  objects  procured  in  tlic  course  of  the  day. 
On  many  occasions,  it  was  two  o'clock  in  the  morning 
before  I  retired  to  rest,  perfectly  benumbed  from  the  in- 
tensity of  the  cold,  which  even  the  double  walls  of  my 
little  tent  could  not  exclude. 

Debbi  on  the  second  day  begged  permission  to  return  to 
Duruji,  pretending  that  he  had  received  a  pressing  mes- 
sage from  his  brother  Sd'dun,  He  left  behind  him  a 
servant  to  look  after  my  safety,  kissed  the  hands  of 
Fahad's  people,  and  prayed  them,  by  all  that  was  holy 
and  sacred,  to  take  the  greatest  care  of  my  precious 
person  and  goods,  "  for,"  said  he,  "  should  anything  hap- 
pen to  him,  woe  betide  me !"  Two  days  later,  the  Mun- 
tefik  guides  themselves  also  asked  permission  to  return 
home,  because  Fahad  and  all  his  people  were  about  to  set 
out  in  a  few  days  for  the  pastures  beyond  Mugeyer  with 
all  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  they  naturally  desired  to 
accompany  them.  I  was  not  sorry  to  lose  these  gentry, 
for  they  evidently  rough-rode  the  poor  Tuweyba  tribe, 
treating  them  like  "  dogs  "  as  they  had  styled  them. 

No  sooner,  however,  were  my  protectors  gone  than  my 
troubles  began.  The  fickle  character  of  the  Madan  re- 
quired fresh  excitement ;  many  of  them  were  soon  tired 
of  their  new  employment ;  they  desired  another  scene. 
A  portion  of  the  tribe  had  already  departed  to  commence 
their  cultivation  on  the  flooded  banks  of  the  Shat-el- 
Kahr,  which  had  now  for  the  first  time  overflowed  for 
se^^eral  years  ;  the  rest  were  all  anxiety  to  follow.  Daily 
they  became  more  importunate,  but  Avere  still  detained 
"by  the  sheikh's  son-in-law,  Hennayin,  whom  I  had  gained 
over  to  second  all  my  plans,  it  being  no  i3art  of  my 
intention  to  quit  Warka  until  the  objects  of  my  journey 
were  secured.  Hennayin,  at  my  instigation,  sounded  the 
feelinfrs  of  the  Arabs,  and  found  that  more  than  half  their 
number  was  willing  to  remain  and  work.     The  remainder, 


DANGER.  151 

headed  by  the  sheikh's  brother,  insisted  on  going  and 
taking  all  the  tribe  with  him,  although  the  poor  sheikh 
himself  was  too  ill  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  a  journey,  and 
wished  to  remain. 

At  length  the  dissatisfied  portion  of  the  community 
contented  themselves  by  decamping  during  the  night — 
not,  however,  before  they  had  set  fire  to  the  brushwood 
at  the  back  of  my  tent  with  an  evident  desire  to  burn  it 
down.  Each  following  day  shewed  a  decrease  in  the  size 
of  our  little  encampment,  until  at  length  Sheikh  Azayiz 
sent  me  word  to  say,  that  he  would  no  longer  be  respon- 
sible for  my  safety,  as  his  tribe  was  at  feud  with  all  around, 
and  nothing  would  delight  his  enemies  more  than  to  pounce 
upon  him  in  his  present  undefended  state.  He  suggested 
that  we  should  all  decamp  to  Duraji,  promising  to  remain 
with  the  workmen  who  adhered  to  my  party.  This  ar- 
rangement was  carried  out,  and,  during  the  remainder  of 
my  stay,  my  tent  was  pitched  under  the  walls  of  Sheikh 
Debbi's  kala'a,  nine  miles  from  the  ruins. 

Of  the  Arabs  who  remained  with  me  there  were  some 
who  had  passed  their  lives  in  ransacking  the  ruins  for 
gold,  and  who  consequently  were  acquainted  with  every 
hole  and  corner  of  the  place.  Among  these  was  an  old 
fellow,  named  Budda,  whose  locks  had  grown  gray  during 
his  avocation  as  a  "grave-digger."  Shrewd,  active,  and 
energetic,  the  head  of  every  piece  of  fun  or  mischief, 
whether  in  leading  a  chorus  or  in  attacking  the  enemy, 
old  Budda  was  regarded  as  the  father  of  his  tribe,  and 
had  much  more  positive  influence  over  his  fellows  than 
either  Azayiz  or  Hennayin.  Whenever  a  quarrel  took 
place,  Budda  was  appealed  to  as  judge  :  whenever  an 
opinion  was  required,  Budda  was  the  counsel  employed  : 
in  fact,  Budda  was  the  genius  of  the  Tuweyba  tribe,  and 
at  his  death  will  doubtless  be  dubbed  an  Imam!  He  soon 
became  as  necessary  to  me  as  he  was  to  his  own  people  ; 


152 


THE  GRAVE-SEEKERS. 


and  all  works  requiring  particular  care  were  confided  to 
Budda's  dii-ection.     He  delighted  when  the  day's  labour 

was  over  to  steal  softly 
into  my  tent,  sip  a  cup 
of  coffee,  and  recount 
his    wild    adventures. 
His    little    gray    eyes 
sparkled,       and       his 
wrinkled  smiling  face 
beamed   with  delight, 
when  he  was  informed 
that  he  was  appointed 
sheikh    of   the    work- 
men.      His    favourite 
position  was  to  sit  on 
his    heels    and    place 
upon    his    knees    liis 
bony     hands,     which, 
from  continual   grub- 
bing in  the  earth,  had 
grown  long  and  sharp 
like  those  of  a  mole.     His  dress  was  a  respectable  white 
abba,  which  he  wore  round  his  waist,  his  head  being 
wrapped  in  an  ample  keffieh,  almost  the  only  one  in  the 
tribe. 

Next  in  intelligence  was  his  son  Gunza  with  the  squeaky 
voice,  a  miserable,  lanky  fellow,  having  sharp  hatchet  fea- 
tiu'es,  and  long  jet-black  locks,  well  greased  and  plaited 
by  his  newly-married  \^afe.  He  too  was  a  general  favour- 
ite ;  and,  next  to  his  father's,  the  falsetto  voice  of  Gunza 
was  heard  above  all  others  in  their  wild  yells  and  songs. 
He  was  a  good  workman,  extremely  docile,  affectionate 
and  obliging.  His  skin  was  as  brown  as  his  abba,  which  I 
never  saw  on  his  shoulders ;  keffieh  he  scorned  to  wear. 
His  father  had  brought  him  up  to  be  a  professed  coffin- 


Budda. 


TRAITS  OF  CHARACTER.  153 

breaker,  and  it  was  incredible  with  wliat  cunning  and 
cleverness  lie  set  about  bis  work.  He  was  a  perfect  ferret, 
and  might  frequently  be  seen  burrowing  in  a  hole  into  which 
it  seemed  almost  impossible  that  he  could  have  crept. 

Then  came  his  cousin  Suweyd,  a  tall  handsome  fellow, 
who  delighted  in  a  short  spear  and  a  thick  head  of  hair, 
which,  being  seldom  combed,  hung  about  his  ears  and 
neck  ad  libitum.  Suweyd  was  fond  of  cringing,  and  was 
frequently  ill-tempered,  but  he  was  strong,  and  esteemed 
a  good  warrior  as  well  as  an  active  workman. 

With  these  three  and  Hennayin,  who  was  deputed  to 
use  the  influence  and  power  of  his  father-in-law  Sheikh 
Azayiz,  and  who  rendered  me  valuable  assistance,  I  con- 
trived to  guide  the  unwieldy  spirits  of  the  Tuweyba.. 
Notwithstanding  their  wild  looks  and  bad  character,  they 
exhibited  many  good  traits.  They  could  not  understand 
my  ha^dug  any  other  object  but  that  of  searching  for  gold 
like  themselves,  and  were  disappointed  at  my  not  having 
found  any.  Soon  after  commencing  excavations,  Gunza 
one  mornino;  came  to  me  with  the  followino-  offer  : — 
"  Beg !  you  have  now  been  with  us  several  days,  and  spent 
much  money  to  no  purpose  :  let  us  choose  a  place  where 
to  dig,  and,  inshallah  !  we  shall  soon  find  heaps  of  gold  I" 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  these  heaps  existed  only  in  his 
good-natured  imagination. 

In  returning  from  the  ruins  at  night  I  always  made  it 
a  practice  to  ride  along  with  the  Arabs  and  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  their  amusements.  This,  I  believe,  told  strongly 
in  my  favour.  Often,  when  a  francolin  sprang  up  before 
the  party,  and  a  well-aimed  shot  with  a  bitumen-headed 
club  or  stick  brought  down  the  game,  the  lucky  sports- 
man would  throw  it  on  the  ground  before  my  horse  and 
beg  my  acceptance  of  it.  Occasionally  one  of  my  wild 
friends  would  rush  into  my  tent,  holding  out  a  hen's 
egg :— -"  AYe  receive  presents  from  you.  Beg,  daily,  but 


164  WARKA  IN  1854. 

have  nothing  to  give  in  return  worthy  of  your  accep- 
tance. What  else  but  food  have  we  to  offer?  All  I 
possess  is  a  hen !  See,  she  has  just  laid  an  egg ;  pray, 
Beg,  accept  it."  Similar  instances  of  a  kind  disposition 
evinced  themselves  ;  and  I  passed  a  pleasant  time  on  the 
whole  with  this  rude  and  primitive  tribe. 

During  the  month  spent  at  the  camps  of  A^ayiz  and 
Debbi,  my  first  collection  of  antiquities  was  sent  from 
Warka  to  the  British  Museum,  but  my  principal  dis- 
coveries were  effected  during  a  subsequent  visit,  when, 
accompanied  by  JMr  Boutcher  the  artist,  I  passed  the 
three  first  months  of  the  year  1854  at  the  same  locality, 
in  charge  of  the  expedition  sent  out  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Assyrian  Excavation  Fund.  Few  explorers  can  have 
more  difficulties  to  experience  than  I  had  on  that  occa- 
sion. After  having  passed,  with  numerous  adventures  and 
mishaps  from  Niffar,  through  the  intricate  marshes  of  the 
Affej,  the  imknown  swamps  under  the  independent  sway 
of  the  Amir,  and  a  three-days'  waterless  desert,  I  found 
that  a  little  revolution  had  taken  place  around  "Warka 
during  my  absence.  The  Tuweyba  tribe  had  been  driven 
out  of  Mesopotamia  across  the  Euphrates,  Sheikh  Debbi 
had  fled  with  his  people  from  Kala'a  Duraji,  and  there 
were  no  Arabs  nearer  the  ruins  than  at  the  httle  village 
of  El-Khithr  on  the  Euphrates,  nine  miles  distant,  conse- 
quently too  far  off  to  admit  of  my  carrying  on  effective 
operations  for  any  length  of  time.  To  this  place  I  was, 
however,  driven,  in  order  to  make  my  preparations  and 
collect  a  staff  of  workmen.  The  sheikh  at  El-Khithr 
proved  to  be  an  ignorant  cross-grained  fellow,  evincing 
no  desire  to  aid  me,  and  exorbitant  in  all  his  demands. 
It  is  true  that  he  permitted  some  of  his  tribe  to  work  in 
the  ruins  for  a  few  days  at  high  wages  :  but  there  was  no 
dependence  to  be  placed  in  liira,  and  he  at  last  absolutely 
refused  to  supply  me  with  workmen. 


DIFFICULTIES  ATTENDING  EXCAVATIONS.  155 

Hearing  that  mj  Tuweyba  friends  were  encamped  about 
a  day's  journey  off,  I  despatched  a  messenger  to  Azayiz, 
who  speedily  made  his  appearance  in  company  with  old 
Budda.  Loving  were  the  greetings  that  passed  between 
us,  and  many  were  the  hugs  which  Azayiz  bestowed  on 
me.  Budda,  however,  as  an  inferior,  contented  himself 
with  imprinting  two  respectful  kisses  on  my  left  shoulder. 
Azayiz  was  willing  to  place  his  tribe  at  my  disposal :  but 
it  was  in  fearfully  bad  odour  with  all  around,  more  espe- 
cially with  the  Wadi,  into  whose  hands  the  Warka  terri- 
tory had  now  passed.  On  my  promise  to  give  him  a 
written  guarantee  for  his  security,  he  brought  over  about 
thirty  men,  and  pitched  his  tent  near  mine.  This  num- 
ber not  being,  however,  sufEcient  for  my  purpose,  more 
were  sent  for.  I  likewise  accepted  an  offer  of  labourers 
from  Tamar,  Sheikh  of  El-'Abbas  tribe,  which  was  sta- 
tioned near  the  junction  of  the  Semava  and  Hillah  streams 
of  the  Euphrates.  Finding  that  my  force  was  increasing, 
the  El-Khithr  tribe  rebelled  against  the  authority  of  their 
sheikh,  and  voluntarily  offered  their  services  :  I  selected 
as  many  men  as  were  required,  and  at  once  decided  on  a 
change  of  quarters. 

While  these  arrangements  were  in  progress,  a  few  Arabs 
were  employed  in  digging  wells  midway  between  El- 
Khithr  and  the  ruins,  in  the  dry  deep  channel  of  an  old 
offshoot  from  the  Euphrates.  The  experiment  succeeded, 
and  a  supply  of  brackish  water  was  obtained,  sufficing 
for  a  time  to  satisfy  our  wants.  The  camp  was  then 
removed  from  the  bank  of  the  great  river  into  the  desert 
beside  these  wells,  which  was  the  nearest  position  to  the 
ruins  affording  water.  Azayiz  brought  his  tent,  but  the 
workmen  contented  themselves  with  rude  shelters  of 
camel's  thorn,  fetched  from  the  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  interposed  between  themselves  and  the  wind,  which 
at  times  blew  most  bitterly  cold.     Fuel  was  procured  by 


156  PRIiMlTIVE  MODE  OF  LIFE. 

digging  up  decayed  roots  of  tamarisk,  which  were  here 
and  there  to  be  found  under  the  sandy  soil.  This  served 
to  keep  in  their  bodies  some  sparks  of  warmth,  as  they 
sat  shivering  over  their  watch-fires  at  night.  The  water, 
however,  at  length  became  undrinkable — even  the  Arabs 
refused  to  touch  it.  It  was,  therefore,  necessary  to  pur- 
chase camels,  by  means  of  which  valuable  animals  sweet 
water  from  the  Euphrates  was  daily  conveyed,  not  only 
to  the  camp,  but  also  to  the  working  parties  at  the 
mounds. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  primitive  mode  of  life  which 
we  led  in  this  region  of  Abraham's  birthplace.  In  the 
patriarchal  style,  we  were  surrounded  by  our  people — our 
flocks  and  herds,  asses  and  camels,  were  daily  driven 
to  browse  by  the  river  side  in  the  morning,  and  back  to 
the  camp  at  night.  A  few  of  the  Arabs  brought  their 
wives  with  them,  who  baked  flat  loaves  of  barley  bread 
in  their  native  ovens  for  the  wants  of  the  community. 
Little  enough,  it  is  true,  had  the  poor  Arabs :  and  we 
were  frequently  obliged  to  provide  for  them  out  of  our 
scanty  store  when  their  own  was  exhausted.  The  extreme 
scarcity  of  food  was,  perhaps,  our  greatest  difficulty.  In 
consequence  of  the  river  having  failed  to  overflow  its 
natural  banks  for  the  four  years  since  my  former  visit, 
the  small  plots  of  cultivation  which  formed  the  chief 
support  of  the  Madau  tribes  had  utterly  failed,  and 
reduced  them  to  a  state  of  the  most  abject  destitution. 
They  had  little  or  nothing  to  support  life  beyond  the 
roots  dug  out  of  the  groimd,  or  the  plunder  obtainable 
from  neighbouring  tribes.  A  dearth  of  provisions  every- 
where prevailed  along  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Eu- 
phrates, so  that  barley  had  risen  fourfold  beyond  its 
usual  price.  On  first  commencing  operations,  the  oflal 
thrown  out  from  our  cook's  tent  was  greedily  seized  and 
devoured  by  the  poor,  half-starved  wretches,  who,  how- 


MISERY  AND  RAPACITY.  157 

ever,  fared  better  as  the  excavations  progressed,  and  they 
received  the  reward  of  their  daily  hibonrs.  Hunger 
makes  all  men  selfish,  and  in  most  cases  alters  all  the 
better  feelings  of  our  nature.  The  Tuweyba  tribe,  which 
were  previously  in  comparatively  affluent  circumstances, 
and  had  engaged  my  sympathies  on  account  of  their 
good-natured  hospitality,  were  now  become  perfect  demons 
of  avarice  and  rapacity.  They  insisted  on  being  paid 
their  wages  every  night,  so  that,  as  there  was  much  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  coin,  I  was  frequently  obliged  to  reduce 
my  customary  number  of  hands  imtil  a  fresh  supply 
reached  me.  There  was  not  sufficient  small  chanc;e  to 
pay  each  man  separately,  so  that  a  deputy  was  chosen  for 
parties  of  four  or  five,  and  the  wages  were  handed  over 
to  him  in  their  presence.  Then  began  a  violent  discus- 
sion about  the  due  partition  of  the  spoil.  Each  man 
tried  to  cheat  the  other,  and  argued  his  own  case,  at  the 
full  pitch  of  his  voice,  in  rich,  round  Arab  gutturals. 
The  furious  gesticulations  that  accompanied  the  dispute 
seemed  frequently  to  threaten  an  open  breach  of  the 
peace,  but  only  ended  in  talk  and  abuse.  They  would  sit 
for  hours  over  their  watch-fires,  discussing  the  knotty 
question  implicated  in  a  black  pice :  and  often,  when  it 
appeared  to  be  settled,  and  the  angry  voices  had  subsided 
to  their  natural  tone,  the  smothered  flame  woidd  break 
out  afresh  with  more  impetuosity  than  before.  Half  the 
night  was  frequently  spent  in  such  debates,  which  invariably 
ended  in  some  poor  fellow  being  defrauded  by  his  friend. 
The  scenes  which  these  quarrels  gave  rise  to,  under  the 
light  of  the  pale  moon  and  the  red  glare  of  the  tamarisk 
fire,  were  such  as  would  have  formed  a  fine  subject  for  the 
painter.  Each  man  was  the  guardian  of  his  own  wealth, 
and  dared  not  trust  his  little  skin  of  flour  to  the  care  of 
his  neighbour  :  whether  in  camp  or  on  the  ruins,  every 
one  carried  his  supply  tied  up  in  .his  abba,  which,  when 


158  SAND-STORMS. 

measured  out  to  be  made  into  bread  by  tlie  women,  never 
passed  out  of  its  owner's  vision  I"^^ 

The  great  difficulty  was,  as  I  have  said,  how  to  buy 
provisions,  for,  on  account  of  the  scarcity,  not  a  single 
article  could  be  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  for  love 
or  money.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  send  for  all  our 
supphes  to  Suk-esh-Sheioukh,  a  distance  of  sixty  miles ; 
and,  as  the  desert  did  not  furnish  a  blade  of  grass,  our 
animals,  too,  were  obliged  to  be  provided  with  barley  and 
straw  from  the  same  place. 

In  ordinary  seasons,  the  inundation  of  the  Euphrates 
extends  to  the  very  base  of  the  mounds,  and  renders 
approach  impossible  from  the  east  except  by  boat.  It  is 
upon  the  newly-deposited  soil  left  by  the  retiring  waters, 
that  the  Arabs  cultivate  crops  of  maize  for  their  next 
year's  subsistence ;  it  may  therefore  be  well  conceived 
that  their  condition  was  not  enviable  when  their  hus- 
bandry failed  for  several  successive  years,  and  they  had 
no  other  means  of  support. 

Another  difficulty  considerably  impeded  excavations. 
It  was  my  desire  to  have  encamped  amid  the  mounds 
themselves  ;  but  this  was  impossible,  in  consequence  of 
the  frequency  of  sand-storms  induced  by  the  slightest 
breath  of  air.  While  all  around  was  in  comparative 
stillness,  Warka  was  enveloped  in  a  dense  cloud  of  impal- 
pable sand,  which  occurred  at  least  twice  or  thrice  a-week, 
and  rendered  our  situation  at  times  extremely  disagree- 
able. The  workmen  were  driven  from  the  trenches,  and 
these  were  drifted  up  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours.  So 
densely  was  the  air  impregnated  with  the  flying  atoms, 
that  the  Arabs  themselves  often  lost  their  way  in  return- 
ing to  camp.  Yet,  beyond  a  certain  distance  from  the 
ruins,  scarcely  a  breath  of  wind  was  perceptible,  and  the 
atmosphere  remained  clear  and  tranquil. 

*  For  a  farther  account  of  the  character  of  the  Mdddn,  see  page  122. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

"The  Land  of  Sliinar "— Warka,  the  Ancient  "  Erech"— "Ur  of  the 
Chaldccs" — Scene  of  Desolation  and  Solitude — Enormous  Extent 
of  Euins — The  Buwariyya — Reed-mat  Structure. 

Of  the  primeval  cities  founded  by  Nimrod,  the  son  of 
Gush,  four  are  represented,  in  Genesis  x.  10,  as  giving 
origin  to  the  rest : — "  And  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom 
was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Galneh,  in  the 
land  of  Shinar/' 

The  position  of  this  land  of  Shinar  is  a  much  disputed 
point,  and  grave  discussion  has  arisen  concerning  its 
identification.  Some  writers,  from  similarity  of  name, 
contend  that  it  refers  to  the  modern  district  called  Sinjar, 
in  Mesopotamia,  between  Mosul  on  the  Tigris,  and  Bir  on 
the  Euphrates  ;  but  the  coincidence  goes  no  further,  for 
Shinar  is  described  in  the  Bible  as  "a  plain,"  whereas 
Sinjar  is  an  undulating,  rocky  region,  traversed  by  a  range 
of  lofty  limestone  mountains.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  supposed  identity  fails,  and  we  are  compelled  to  look 
elsewhere  for  the  first  settlements. 

Others,  with  more  reason,  point  to  a  district  much 
further  to  the  south,  where  are  the  remains  of  innumer- 
able ancient  cities,  regarded  by  Jewish  tradition  as  the 
country  Shinar,  from  whence  that  nation  originally  pro- 
ceeded. In  confirmation  of  this,  Babylonia,  in  the  old 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  is   called  by  the  same  name, — 


160  DERIVATION  OF  THE  NAME  "  WARKA.' 

Shinar,  and  it  is  likewise  still  preserved  in  tlie  important 
ruins  of  Sinkara. 

The  site  of  Babel  is,  moreover,  traditionally  assigned  to 
the  same  region,  and  the  large  ruins  near  Hillah  on  the 
Euphrates  are  generally  supposed  to  represent  it.  If  this 
be  admitted,  we  ought  naturally  to  seek  for  the  other 
three  cities  of  the  primitive  kingdom  in  the  adjacent 
region.  AVithout,  however,  attempting  to  identify  Accad 
or  Calneh,  which  would  be  foreign  to  our  purpose,  let  us 
see  if  there  be  any  site  which  will  correspond  with  the 
bibUcal  Erech — the  second  city  of  Nimrod. 

About  120  miles  south-east  of  Babylon,  are  some 
enormous  piles  of  mounds,  which,  from  their  name  and 
importance,  appear  at  once  to  justify  their  claim  to  con- 
sideration. The  name  of  Warka  is  derivable  from  Erech 
without  unnecessary  contortion.  The  original  Hebrew 
word  "Erk,"  or  "Ark,"  is  transformed  into  "Warka,"  either 
by  changing  the  aleph  into  vau,  or  by  simply  prefixing  the 
vau  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  as  is  customary  in  the 
conversion  of  Hebrew  names  to  Arabic.  If  any  depen- 
dence can  be  placed  upon  the  derivation  of  modern  from 
ancient  names,  this  is  more  worthy  of  credence  than  most 
others  of  like  nature. 

Some  persons  derive  Warka  from  the  Arabic  root  'irk, 
"  a  branch  or  vein,"  from  whence  originates  the  modern 
name  of  the  region — Irak- Arab! ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  Arabic  language  is  not  to  be  depended 
on  for  the  root  of  such  an  ancient  name  as  Erech. 
"  Country  of  arteries"  would  otherwise  be  a  very  appro- 
priate name  for  a  region  intersected  with  canals. 

Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  states  his  belief  that  Warka  is 
Erech,  and  in  this  he  is  supported  by  concurrent  testimony. 
Although  he  has  been  unable  to  read  its  cuneiform  name 
with  precision,  it  is  generally  designated  as  "  the  oiiy," par 
excellence.     He  therefore  ascribes  to  Warka  a  very  high 


__,..{,  fl/.^t 


V 


SCALE  or  YARDS 


A  Bouarich. 

B  Was- Was  Ruin. 

C  Large  Ruin. 

D  Parthian  (?)  Tower. 

E  Edifice  of  Cones. 

F  Conical  Mound  (Excavated). 


Q  Greek  and  Parthian  Mound. 

H  Scaria  Mounds. 

I  Sculpture  in  Basalt. 

L  Tower  of  Brick  and  Vases 

M  Conical  Mound. 

N  S.  W.  Square  Mound, 


O    Tablet  Terrace, 


WARKA "  UR  OF  THE  CHALDEES."  161 

antiquity,  and  regards  it  as  the  motlier-city  from  wliich 
al]  others  sprang.'"'  It  is  not  improbable  that  Herodotus  re- 
fers to  Warka  when  he  speaks  of  Arderikka,t  corresponding 
with  the  Chaldsean  Ar'a  de  Erek,  or  Land  of  Erech. 

A  trace  of  the  same  name  appears  to  exist  in  Orchoe  of 
Alexander's  time.  We  are  told  by  Phny|  that  the  inha- 
bitants of  that  city  diverted  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  their  lands  ;  and  it  is  Hkewise 
mentioned  by  Strabo§  as  a  city  which  possessed  an 
university  for  the  study  of  astronomy,  from  whence 
originated  the  sect  of  Chaldsean  philosophers  called 
Orchoeni,  in  contradistinction  to  those  of  Borsippa.  The 
near  correspondence  of  the  two  names,  the  discovery  of 
very  early  cuneiform,  as  well  as  of  Greek,  records  at 
Warka,  the  immensity  of  its  ruins,  and  the  sacred 
character  attached  to  them,  are  certainly  highly  favour- 
able to  the  identity  of  Warka  with  the  primitive  Erech, 
and  the  Greek  Orchoe. 

It  has  been  elsewhere  observed,  ||  that  previous  to  the 
discovery  of  the  Mugeyer  cylinders,  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson 
definitely  concluded  that  Warka  was,  moreover,  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees,  from  whence  Abraham  migrated  into  Syria. 
He  remarks  that  a  very  ancient  and  valuable  manuscript 
in  his  library  determinately  connects  the  ruins  of  Warka 
with  Ur  : — "  The  traditionists  report  that  Abraham  was 
born  at  El  Warka,  in  the  district  of  Edh-Dhawabi,ir  on 
the  confines  of  Kaskar,  and  that  his  father  afterwards 
moved  to  Nimrod's  capital,  which  is  in  the  territory  of 
Kutha.  As-sudi,  however,  states  that  when  the  mother 
of  Abraham  found  herself  pregnant,  Azer  (the  biblical 
Terah)  feared  lest  the  child  should  perish,  so  he  went  out 

•  See  page  xvi.  of  the  Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  1852 ;  and  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geogr.  Society,  vol.  i.,  page  47.- 
t  Herodotus,  i.  185.  %  Pliny,  vi.  27.  §  Strabo,  xvi.  739. 

II  At  page  131.  1"  Dowab,  in  Persian,  means  "  two  rivei-a." 

L 


1  62  UNAPPROACHABLE  POSITION  OF  AVARKA. 

with  licr  to  a  country  between  Kufa  and  Wasit,  which 
was  called  Ur."''^  This  tradition  of  Abraham's  birth- 
place at  Warka,  however,  originated  not  with  the  Arabs, 
but  with  the  Jews,  and  is  therefore  more  deserving 
credence. 

Without  desiring  to  claim  for  Warka  more  honour 
than  the  place  is  duly  entitled  to,  may  we  not,  although 
admittincr  the  correctness  of  the  reading  "  Hur"  on  the 
Mtigeyer  cylinders,  still,  consistently  with  this  ancient 
tradition,  regard  Warka  as  Ur,  on  the  supposition  that 
this  name  is  apphed — not  to  a  city — but  to  a  district  of 
the  Chaldees,  w^hich  included  both  the  ruined  sites  of 
Warka  and  Mugeyer  1  In  this  light  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees " 
is,  I  believe,  regarded  by  some  authorities  on  this  subject. 

If  IMugeyer  be  Ur,  we  have  likewise  the  same  root  in  the 
name  Orchoe.  I  therefore  agree  with  Mr  Baillie  Fraser,t 
in  his  remark  that  "  Warka  may  possibly  represent 
Orchoe  of  the  Chaldseans,  while  the  term  Orchoe  may  be 
nothino;  more  than  a  mere  modification  of  the  ancient 
Erech,  and  Warka  or  Irka  a  more  modern  pronunciation 
of  both." 

Having  made  these  preliminary  remarks  on  the  still 
obscure  origin  and  history  of  Warka,  I  proceed  to  describe 
the  present  aspect  of  these  very  remarkable  ruins.  They 
stand  in  latitude  about  31°  19'  N.  and  in  longitude  about 
45°  40'  E.,  and  are  distant  four  miles  from  the  nearest 
point  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  An  elevated 
tract  of  desert  soil,  ten  miles  in  breadth,  is  slightly 
raised  above  a  series  of  inundations  and  marshes  caused 
by  the  annual  overflowing  of  the  Euphrates.     Upon  this 

*  *' Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xil,  p.  481 ;  note. 

t  "  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria,"  p.  115.  In  several  recent  works,  the  names 
Miigayah,  El-Asayleh,  or  "  the  place  of  pebbles,"  and  Senkereh  are,  on  the 
authority  of  Colonel  Chesney,  applied  to  the  ruins  of  Warka.  The  Arabs 
of  the  locaUty,  however,  do  not  know  them  by  any  such  names  ;  and  Sinkara 
is  an  independent  ruin,  15  miles  east-south-east  of  Warka. 


SOLITUDE  AND  DESOLATION.  163 

are  situated  not  only  Warka,  but  Sinkara,  Tel  Ede,  and 
Hammam — all  unapproachable,  except  from  November 
to  March,  during  which  months  the  river  assumes  its 
lowest  level,  and  occasionally  admits  of  access.  This  belt 
of  elevated  soil  extends  from  a  few  miles  south  of  Warka, 
in  a  N.E.  direction,  to  the  meres  of  the  Affej  already  men- 
tioned. Towards  the  south  and  east  the  land  of  Chaldsea 
is  swallowed  up  in  a  chain  of  marshes,  through  which,  at 
long  intervals,  an  island  or  an  ancient  mound  appears 
above  the  horizon  of  waters.  This  character  of  the  dis- 
trict appears  from  historical  evidence  to  have  obtained 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  is  duly  represented  in  the 
Nineveh  sculptures  during  the  period  of  Sennacherib. 
While  the  inundation  prevails,  reeds  and  coarse  grass 
skirt  the  border  of  the  water,  and  a  few  stunted  tamarisk 
bushes  flourish  for  a  time  at  a  little  higher  level ;  but 
with  the  retiring  of  the  water  vegetation  rapidly  dies, 
and  in  a  few  short  weeks  nothing  but  dried  rushes  and 
leafless  twigs  are  to  be  seen  on  a  parched  sandy  desert. 

The  desolation  and  solitude  of  Warka  are  even  more 
striking  than  the  scene  which  is  presented  at  Babylon 
itself.  There  is  no  life  for  miles  around.  No  river 
glides  in  grandeiu?  at  the  base  of  its  mounds  ;  no  green 
date  groves  flourish  near  its  ruins.  The  jackal  and  the 
hyaena  appear  to  shun  the  dull  aspect  of  its  tombs.  The 
king  of  birds  never  hovers  over  the  deserted  waste.  A 
blade  of  grass  or  an  insect  finds  no  existence  there.  The 
shrivelled  lichen  alone,  clinging  to  the  weathered  surface 
of  the  broken  brick,  seems  to  glory  in  its  universal 
dominion  upon  those  barren  walls.  Of  all  the  desolate 
pictures  which  I  have  ever  beheld,  that  of  Warka  incom- 
parably surpasses  all.  There  are,  it  is  true,  lofty  and 
imposing  structures  towering  from  the  surrounding  piles 
of  earth,  sand,  and  broken  pottery,  but  all  form  or  plan 
is  lost  in  masses  of  fallen  brickwork  and  rubbish.     These 


164  GENERAL  VIEW  AND  EXTENT. 

only  serve  to  impress  the  mind  more  fully  with  the 
complete  ruin  and  desertion  which  have  overtaken  the 
city.  Its  ancient  name  even  is  lost  to  the  modern  tribes, 
and  little  is  known  with  certainty  of  its  past  history. 
Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Siisa  have  their  peculiar  traditions, 
but  ancient  Warka  and  its  sanctity  are  forgotten  as  though 
they  had  possessed  no  previous  existence. 

Standing  upon  the  summit  of  the  principal  edifice  called 
the  Buwariyj^a/''  in  the  centre  of  the  ruins,  the  beholder  is 
struck  with  astonishment  at  the  enormous  accumulation 
of  mounds  and  ancient  relics  at  his  feet.      An  irregular 
circle,  nearly  six  miles  in  circumference,  is  defined  by  the 
traces  of  an  earthen  rampart,  in  some  places  forty  feet 
high.      An   extensive   platform  of  undulating   mounds, 
brown  and  scorched  by  the  burning  sun,  and  cut  up  by 
innumerable  channels  and  ravines,  extends,  in  a  general 
direction  north  and  south,  almost  up  to  the  wall,  and 
occupies  the  greatest  part  of  the  enclosed  area.      As  at 
NifFar,  a  wide   channel  divides  the  platform  into   two 
unequal  parts,  which  vary  in  height   from  twenty  to 
fifty  feet ;  upon  it  are  situated  the  principal  edifices  of 
Warka.     On  the  western  edge  of  the  northern  portion 
rise,  in  soleimi  grandeur,  masses   of  bricks  which  have 
accumulated  around  the  lower  stories  of  two  rectangular 
buildings  and  their  various  offices,  supposed  to  be  temples, 
or  perhaps  royal  tombs.     The  bleached  and  lichen-covered 
aspect  of  the  surface  attests  the  long  lapse  of  agos  which 
has  passed  since   the  enterprising  hand  of  man  reared 
them  from  above  the  surrounding  level  desert.     Detached 
from  the  principal  mass  of  platform  are  several  irregularly- 
shaped  low  mounds  between  it  and  the  walls,  some  of 
which  are  thickly  strewed  with  lumps  of  black  scoria,  as 
though  buildings  on  their  summits  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire.     At  the  extreme  north  of  the  platform,  close  to 
*  A  on  General  Plan. 


GENERAL  VIEW  AND  EXTENT.  165 

the  wall,  a  conical  moiind^'  rears  its  head  from  the  sur- 
rounding waste  of  ruins — the  barrow  probably  of  some 
ancient  Scyth.  Warka,  in  the  days  of  her  greatness,  was 
not,  however,  confined  within  the  limit  of  her  walls  ;  her 
suburbs  may  be  traced  by  ruined  buildings,  mounds,  and 
pottery,  fully  three  miles  beyond  the  ramparts  into  the 
eastern  desert.  Due  north,  at  the  distance  of  two  miles 
from  the  Buwariyya,  is  the  dome-shaped  pile  of  NufFayji,t 
which  rivals  the  central  ruin  itself  in  height,  and  stands 
the  advanced  guard  of  the  city.  Near  it  several  smaller 
barrows  are  strewed  around  without  apparent  order  or 
design.  On  the  north-east  is  another  large  mound, |  re- 
sembHng,  but  smaller  than,  Nuffayji. 

Forlorn  splendour  and  unbroken  solitude  reign  undis- 
turbed on  the  ruins.  With  the  exception  of  the  Tuweyba 
tribe,  the  Arabs  shun  a  site  which  is  held  to  be  the  abode 
of  evil  spirits,  and  none  wiU  dare  to  pass  a  night  upon  the 
doleful  spot. 

The  view  of  the  surrounding  horizon  is  not  more  cheer- 
ino:  than  that  of  the  desolate  scene  within  the  walls. 
During  seasons  of  drought  (for  I  have  visited  Warka  at 
no  other  time),  seldom  is  an  Arab  tent  or  herd  of  cattle 
discernible  on  any  side.  In  the  clear  sky  of  morning  or 
evening  it  is  only  possible  to  make  out  a  few  spots  which 
mark  the  winding  coiKse  of  the  Euphrates  at  the  junction 
of  the  Hillah  and  Semava  streams,  El-Khithr  trees  and 
K^la'a  Duraji — old  settlements  casually  inhabited. 

Tel  Ede  on  the  north-north-east,  Sinkara  on  the  east- 
south-east,  and  a  few  date-trees  on  the  marshes  of  the 
Kahr,  are  all  that  the  eye  finds  to  dwell  upon  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  intervening  space  is  a  dry,  barren 
and  dismal  desert,  void  of  water,  vegetation,  and  inhabi- 
tants. The  prophecy  of  the  coming  desolation  of  Babylon 
is  equally  applicable  to  Warka  : — "  It  shall  never  be 
•  F  on  Plan.  t  J  on  Plan.  X  M  on  Plan. 


166  EXTERNAL  WALLS. 

inhabited,  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from-  generation  to 
generation  :  neither  shall  the  Arabian  pitch  tent  there  ; 
neither  shall  the  shepherds  make  their  fold  there."''"  For 
probably  eighteen  centuries,  Warka  has  stood  deserted  and 
in  ruins  as  she  now  appears.  No  wonder  therefore,  that 
her  history  is  lost  in  the  oblivion  of  tlie  past ! 

The  external  walls  of  sun-dried  brick  enclosino-  the 

o 

main  portion  of  the  ruins  may  be  traced  without  much 
difficulty  throughout  their  entire  circuit.  They  assume 
the  form  of  an  irregular  circle  five-and-a-half  miles  in 
circumference,  with  slightly  perceptible  angles  towards 
the  cardinal  points. 

They  attain  their  highest  elevation  on  the  north-east 
side,t  where  they  are  between  forty  and  fifty  feet  above 
the  plain,  but  the  great  quantity  of  rubbish  lying  at  their 
base  proves  that  their  original  height  was  considerably 
more.     The  width  may  have  been  perhaps  twenty  feet. 

From  this  point  they  trend  away  towards  the  south, 
gTadually  decreasing  in  height  until  they  become  level 
with  the  desert,  exhibiting  at  intervals  traces  of  the  brick- 
work itself.  For  the  most  part,  however,  they  have  long 
since  lost  all  marks  of  their  origin,  and  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  a  simple  earthen  rampart.  Many  breaks 
occur  along  this  portion  of  the  walls,  some  of  which  were 
undoubtedly  entrances. 

From  south  to  west  the  course  of  the  wall  is  only  dis- 
cernible from  the  desert  itself  by  the  darker  colour  of  the 
soil  and  the  remains  of  semi-oval  tiu'rets,  fifty  feet  apart. 
These  were  open  towards  the  city,  and  j^ossessed  walls 
from  four  to  five-and-a-half  feet  in  thickness. 

Towards  the  north-west  the  wall  may  be  followed  over 

several  large  mounds,  covered  with  black  slag  and  scoria, 

like  the  refuse  of  a  glass  factory.     It  is  not  improbable 

that  this  was  the  site  of  the  furnaces  where  the  glazed 

•  Isaiah  xiii.  2(V        t  Near  the  conical  mound  maiied  F  on  the  Plan. 


THE  BUWARfYiTA.  167 

pottery  herfkfter  alluded  to  was  made.  Pottery,  vitrified 
and  inscribed  bricks,  scoria,  and  glass,  are  elsewhere  found 
in  abundance  on  the  surface  of  the  ruins. 

Of  the  three  great  edifices""'  which  rise  conspicuously 
from  the  surface  of  the  ruins,  that  called  Buwariyya  is  not 


The  Buwdriyya  Ruin  at  Warka. 

only  the  most  central,  but  the  most  lofty  and  ancient. 
At  first  sight  it  appears  to  be  a  cone,  but  further  exa- 
mination proves  it  to  be  a  tower,  200  feet  square,  built 
entirely  of  sun-dried  bricks.  On  excavating  at  its  base- 
ment there  was  discovered,  on  the  centre  of  each  side,  a 
massive  buttress  of  peculiar  construction,  erected  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  the  main  edifice.  Unlike  Miigeyer 
and  other  Babylonian  structures,  the  lower  tower  of  the 
Buwariyya  is  without  any  external  facing  of  kiln-baked 
brickwork,  its  place  being,  however,  supplied  by  the 
above-mentioned  buttresses.  This,  together  with  the  pri- 
mitive manner  in  which  the  central  portion  is  arranged, 
leads  to  the  supposition  that  it  is  a  very  early  struc- 
ture. Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  confirms  this  conclusion,  by 
reading  the  name  of  King  Urukht  upon  the  brick  legends 

*  A,  B,  and  C  on  the  Plan. 

t  See  inscriptions  page  1G9.    This  king  also  built  Mtigeyer  and  Niffar. 


168  THE  BUWARfYYA. 

of  tlie  buttresses,  which  record  the  dedicatioifof  the  edifice 
to  "  Sin/'  or  the  "  Moon,"  by  that  monarch,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  about  2230  B.C.  The  total  height  of 
the  Buwariyya  is  perhaps  1 00  feet  above  the  desert  plain, 
but  only  27  feet  of  the  internal  brickwork  emerges  from  a 
mass  of  rubbish,  which  slopes  in  a  gradual  descent  from 
the  summit  and  entirely  covers  up  the  buttresses.  The 
sides  are  deeply  cut  and  furrow^ed  by  rain  channels  and 
ravines.  The  sun-dried  bricks  are  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes,  w^hich  is  contrary  to  the  custom  in  later  edifices. 
They  are  rudely  moulded  of  very  incoherent  earth,  mixed 
with  fragments  of  pottery  and  fresh-w^ater  shells,  and 
vary  in  size  from  7  to  9  inches  long  by  7  inches  wide, 
and  3  or  S^  inches  in  thickness. 

The  name  "Buw™y}^a,"  in  Arabic,  signifies  "reed  mats," 
which  term  is  similarly  applied  to  other  mounds  in  Meso- 
potamia, in  the  construction  of  which  the  reed  matting  is 
used  as  a  new  foundation  for  the  successive  layers  of 
bricks.  Eeeds  are  placed  at  intervals  of  4  or  5  feet,  and 
serve  to  protect  the  earthen  mass  from  disintegTation,  by 
projecting  beyond  the  external  surface.  Four  or  five 
rows  of  bricks  are  laid  horizontally  under  and  upon  each 
layer,  and  cemented  in  mud,  but  the  remainder  are  placed 
lengthwise  on  edge,  with  their  flat  surfaces  and  narrow 
edges  facing  outwards.  The  same  oblong  apertures,  which 
usually  characterize  edifices  of  this  description,  are  ob- 
servable here.  The  summit  of  the  existing  ruin  is  per- 
fectly flat,  and  measures  68  feet  from  north  to  south.  At 
one  point  are  traces  of  a  brick  superstructure,  with  inscrip- 
tions of  Sin-shada,  who  lived  about  1500  B.C.,  and  the 
rubbish,  mixed  with  bitumen,  on  the  exterior,  appears  to 
have  fallen  from  it.  We  therefore  conclude  that  Sin- 
shada  repaired  or  rebuilt  the  upper  terrace  of  the  Buwariyya 
which  had  been  erected  800  years  previously  by  his  pre- 
decessor, Urukh,  in  the  same  manner  as  Nebuchadnezzar, 


RECORDS  OF  URUKH,  2230  B.C. 


169 


MkB 


II  ^ 


^%fP>. 


stamped  Inscription  of  Urukh  in  Monograms. 


at  a  later  period,  repaired  tlie  terraces  of  the  Birs  Nimrud, 
constructed  500  years  before  his  time. 

The  buttresses  which  have  been  referred  to  are  19  feet 
high,  and  each  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  by  an 
intervening  space  of  1 
foot   9   inches.      Each 
portion    is    2    feet    2 
inches  thick,  and  pro- 
jects 7^  feet  from  the 
unbaked  central  mass, 
against  which  the  two 
parts   of  the  buttress 
are  united  by  a  strong 
wall.     The  fiat  bricks 
are     cemented      with 
thick   layers   of  bitu- 
men, so  firmly  adher- 
ing together  that  they  can  with  difficulty  be  separated. 
Each  brick  is  inscribed  with  eight  lines  of  complicated 
monogrammic  characters,  peculiar  to  the  earlier  cunei- 
form inscriptions. 
The  greater  num- 
ber are  stamped, 
but  in  some  the 
inscriptions      are 
written,    and  ex- 
hibit the  manner 
in      which      the 
stamped      mono- 
grams are  consti- 
tuted. 

I   destroyed    a 

2'reit  DOrtion   of  a  inscription  ofUi-ukh  in  oi-dlnary  cuneiform  characters. 

buttress,  and  duo;  a  considerable  distance  into  the  western 
ano-le  of  the  internal  mass  of  brickwork,  for  the  purpose 


170  THE  BUWARfYYA  E^X'LOSURE. 

of  discovering  the  dedicatory  cylinders,  which  IVIr  Tay- 
lor s  excavations  at  Mtigeyer  proved  to  be  deposited  at 
the  corners  of  Babylonian  edifices.  It  is,  however,  pro- 
bable that  they  had  long  previously  been  destroyed  by 
the  fall  of  brickwork,  and  therefore  my  search  for  these 
valued  records  was  fruitless. 

The  Buvvariyya  stands  at  the  western  angle  of  a  large 
enclosiu-e,  350  feet  long  by  270  feet  wide,  which  evidently 
extended  around  it,  and  reached  to  the  south-east  edge 
of  the  great  platform.  Distinct  w^alls  of  vitrified  bricks, 
bearing  the  name  of  Merodach-gina,  1400  B.C.,  are  trace- 
able in  different  places. 

Without  extensive  excavations  it  w^ould  be  impossible 
to  understand  the  original  plan  or  disposition  of  the  nu- 
merous walls  which  appear  from  under  masses  of  unbaked 
brick.  It  is  probable  that  they  acted  as  supports,  and 
served  to  prevent  outward  pressure. 

The  south-east  portion  of  the  enclosure  is  traversed  by 
numerous  ravines,  which  penetrate  deeply  into  the  mound, 
and  expose  several  of  these  walls.  Wherever  trenches 
were  opened  at  this  locality  they  revealed  the  same  un- 
baked mass  intersected  by  rectangular  walls  cemented  in 
bitimien. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

"Wuswas"  Kidn — The  Earliest  Explorer — Rude  Ornamentation — 
Columnar  Architecture — Palm  Logs  the  Probable  Type — New  Light 
on  the  External  Architecture  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians — 
Interior  of  Wuswas — The  Use  of  the  Arch  in  Ancient  Mesopotamia 
— Search  for  Sculptures — The  Warrior  in  Basalt. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  structure  at  "Warka  is  that 
called  "  AVuswas."'"'  It  is  contained  in  a  spacious  walled 
quadrangle,  the  eastern  corner  of  which  is  840  feet  from 
the  Buwariyya.  Its  north-western  side  is  on  the  edge  of 
the  great  platform.  The  enclosure  is  oblong,  and  includes 
an  area  of  more  than  7^  acres  ;  the  north-west  and  south- 
east sides  respectively  measure  650  feet  and  500  feet. 
All  the  buildings  at  Warka  point  with  one  corner  to  the 
true  north,  and,  this  being  likewise  the  case  at  Mugeyer, 
I  presume  that  such  arrangement  obtained  generally 
in  Clialdoean  architecture,  perhaps  for  astronomical  pur- 
poses. The  walls  of  the  enclosure  are  now  reduced  to 
long,  high  ridges  of  bricks  and  mortar.  A  large  court  on 
the  level  of  the  platform  occupies  the  eastern  corner,  and 
is  approached  by  an  entrance  through  each  of  its  external 
walls.  A  third  gateway  on  the  south-west  led  to  a  ter- 
race in  front  of  the  principal  building. 

A  second  court,  at  a  lower  level,  occupies  a  correspond- 
ing position  at  the  north  angle,  and  likewise  approaches 
the  main  structure,  probably  by  a  flight  of  steps.    A  large 

*  B  on  Plan. 


172 


THE  SACRILEGIOUS  NEGKO. 


gateway  gives  entrance  to  this  court  from  the  north- 
west. 

The  remainders  of  the  north-west  and  south-east  sides 
are  elevated  terraces,  parallel  with  the  walls  of  the  prin- 
cipal edifice,  that  on  the  north-west  being  of  considerable 
width. 

The  most  important  and  conspicuous  portion  of  this 
great  enclosure  is  the  structure  on  the  south-west  side, 
which  gives  its  present  name  to  the  min.  It  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  a  negro  called  Wuswas,  who,  a  few  years 
ago,  observed  a  wall  on  the  south-west  side,  and  began 

to  make  an  exca- 
vation, under  the 
impression  that  he 
would  find  gold 
within.  After  pe- 
netratino-  fifteen 
feet  throuoh  solid 
brick-work  he  dis- 
covered a  valu- 
able ring,  but  one 
of  the  saints  of 
the  Mohammedan 
calendar  appeared 
in  a  vision,  and 
warned  him  that 
^  his  act  of  spolia- 
tion was  sinful, 
and  that,  if  he 
still  persisted  in 
his  wicked  pro- 
ject, paradise  and  its  hiiris  would  not  be  his  future  lot. 
Wuswas  was  alarmed,  but,  un\villing  to  part  with  the 
treasure  he  had  akeady  acquired,  disappeared,  and  it  is  to 
this  day  unknown  whether  he  had  been  torn  to  pieces 


The  Excavation  at  Wuswaa. 


THE  WUSWAS  RUIN.  173 

by  wild  beasts,  or  whether  the  Mohammedan  saint  had 
forthwith  transported  him  to  the  seventh  heaven.  The 
superstitious  Arabs  have  never  sin^e  dared  to  enter  the 
excavation,  although  they  have  no  hesitation  in  ejecting 
the  bones  of  the  dead  from  the  tenements  where  they 
have  for  ages  reposed.  The  excavation  made  by  Wuswas 
shewed  an  a.ct  of  patience  and  perseverance  foreign  to  the 
Arab  character,  and  exposed  a  thickness  of  walling  which 
is,  at  first  sight,  likely  to  lead  to  the  erroneous  conclusion 
that  the  great  pile  was  a  solid  mass.  This  ruin  is  246 
feet  long  by  174  feet  wide,  and  stands  80  feet  above  the 
plain.  On  three  sides  are  terraces  of  different  elevations, 
but  the  fourth  or  south-west  presents  a  perpendicular 
fagade,  at  one  place  23  feet  in  height. 

Like  all  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  ruins,  the  Wuswas 
building  is  elevated  on  a  lofty  artificial  platform  50  feet 
high,  which  has  perhaps  been  added  to  that  of  the  Buwd- 
riyya.  The  enormous  amount  of  rubbish  which  encumbers 
its  summit,  sides,  and  base,  gives  some  slight  idea  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  edifice,  and  excites  unbounded  surprise. 
It  rises  from  2  to  6  feet  above  the  building,  completely 
fills  every  chamber,  measures  from  20  to  30  feet  from 
the  base  of  the  external  walls,  and  extends  down  the 
slope  of  the  mound — a  truncated  pyramid  of  broken 
bricks  and  mortar. 

At  my  second  visit,  on  returning  from  Mohammerah, 
I  remarked  certain  architectural  peculiarities,  which  sub- 
sequently induced  me  to  undertake  excavations  on  the 
site  of  Wuswas's  labours.  Trenches  were  therefore  di- 
rected against  the  fa9ade,  where  there  appeared  a  proba- 
bility that  an  entrance  might  be  effected  into  the  interior. 
The  immense  accumidation  of  fallen  brickwork  rendered 
excavation  a  work  of  considerable  danger,  and  required 
the  greatest  care  to  prevent  the  workmen  being  buried 
up  by  the  giving  way  of  the  loose  material.      Appliances 


174 


SOUTH-WEIBT  FACADE. 


like  stays  or  slioring  were 
unprocurable  in  the  de- 
serts ;  we  laboured  in  the 
most  primitive  manner. 

The  edo-e  of  a  broken 
wall  was,  in  the  first  place, 
laid  bare  at  the  summit, 
and  the  uniformity  of  its 
outline  induced  me  to  ex- 
cavate  at   four  different 
localities,     but    it    soon 
became      evident      that 
i    neither      entrance      nor 
window  ever  existed  on 
this  side ;    at   the   same 
time,  it  afforded  the  first 
glimpse    of     Babylonian 
architecture,      exhiljiting 
I    peculiarities    so   remark- 
I    able  and  original  as    to 
I    pronounce    at    once    its 
^    undoubted  antiquity.     It 
g    furnishes  a  new  page  to 
I    the    annals    of    architec- 
^    tural  art. 

The  facade  measures 
174  feet  in  length,  and, 
as  before  stated,  in  some 
places  23  feet  in  height. 
With  this  elevation,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  complete 
a  restoration  of  the  entire 
front  to  that  height.  Al- 
though the  portions  un- 

The  right  half  of  the  Plan  is  a  horizontal  section  throuorh  the  columns-^ 


EUDE  COLUMNAR  ARCHITECTURE.  1  75 

covered  possess  no  beauty  comparable  with  the  artistic 
conceptions  and  productions  of  subsequent  ages,  a  broad 
air  of  grandeur  must  have  attended  the  immense  size  and 
height  of  the  edifice.  Such  buildings  as  those  at  Warka 
must  have  been  imposing  in  the  extreme. 

At  the  base  of  the  ruin  a  narrow  terrace,  3^  feet  wide, 
coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  white  plaster,  runs  the  entire 
length  of  the  facade.  From  this,  in  one  unbroken  per- 
pendicular line,  without  a  single  moulding,  rises  the  main 
wall,  which  is  subdivided  by  slight  recesses  1 2^  feet  long. 
Nothing  can  be  more  plain,  more  rude,  or,  in  fact,  more 
unsightly  than  the  decoration  employed  upon  this  front ; 
but  it  is  this  very  aspect — this  very  ugliness,  which 
vouches  for  the  originality  of  the  style.  It  has  long  been 
a  question  whether  the  column  was  employed  by  the 
Babylonians  as  an  architectural  embelHshment.  The 
Wuswas  fagade  settles  this  point  beyond  dispute.  Upon 
the  lower  portion  of  the  building  are  groups  of  seven 
half-columns  repeated  seven  times — the  rudest  perhaps 
which  were  ever  reared,  but  built  of  moulded  semicircular 
bricks,  and  securely  bonded  to  the  wall.  The  entire 
absence  of  cornice,  capital,  base,  or  diminution  of  shaft, 
so  characteristic  of  other  columnar  architecture,  and  the 
peculiar  and  original  disposition  of  each  group  in  rows 
like  palm  logs,  suggest  the  type  from  which  they  sprang. 
It  is  only  to  be  compared  with  the  style  adopted  by 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  other  countries,  and  was  evi- 
dently derived  from  the  construction  of  wooden  edifices. 
The  same  arrangement  of  uniform  reeds  or  shafts,  placed 
side  by  side,  as  at  Wuswas,  occurs  in  many  Egyptian 
structures,  and  in  the  generality  of  Mexican  buildings 
before  the  Spanish  invasion.     It  is  that  which  is  likely  to 

the  other  half  a  section  through  the  recesses  of  the  upper  story.  The  only 
portion  of  the  facade  exposed  before  the  excavations  was  around  the  hole 
dug  by  the  negro,  of  which  an  engraving  is  given  on  page  172. 


1  76  RUDE  COLUMNAR  ARCHITECTURE. 

originate  among  a  rude  people  before  the  introduction  of 
the  arts. 

There  is  not  a  line  in  the  facade  to  which  foreign 
influence  can  be  traced.  In  place  of  a  plinth,  a  fillet  of 
plaster,  1-^  inch  high,  re-connects  the  line  of  wall  broken 
by  the  successive  groups  of  columns.  In  similar  manner 
above  them  a  horizontal  band  passes  flush  with  the  wall. 
The  otherwise  monotonous  character  of  this  portion  of  the 
front  is  in  some  measure  varied  by  the  nearer  arrange- 
ment of  the  two  outward  groups  of  columns. 

From  the  horizontal  band,  immediately  above  the  three 
central  columns  of  each  group,  rises  a  stepped  recess  if 
foot  deep,  surmounted  by  a  larger  and  a  smaller  crescent 
— a  sacred  emblem  of  Chaldaean  worship.  On  either  side 
of  these  recesses,  over  the  first  and  seventh  columns  of 
each  series,  is  a  chasing,  containing,  in  its  upper  half,  a 
column  similar  to  those  before  described. 

The  rest  of  the  front  at  intervals  is  perpendicularly 
subdi\T.ded  by  chasings  7  inches  deep,  extending  unin- 
terruptedly from  the  terrace  to  the  highest  point  of  the 
building  now  remaining.  This  chasing  occurs  in  many 
other  Chaldsean  ruins — at  the  small  oratory  at  Mugeyer 
and  on  the  great  temple  at  Sinkara — and  may  be  regarded 
as  a  chief  characteristic  of  Babylonian  architectural 
ornamentation. 

The  whole  front  has  been  undoubtedly  coated  with 
white  plaster  from  2  to  4  inches  thick,  which  seems  to 
have  suff'ered  more  from  the  fall  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  building  than  from  its  anterior  exposure  to  the 
weather.     It  exhibits  no  trace  of  colour. 

I  have  entered  upon  the  above  details,  because  we 
previously  knew  httle  or  nothing  regarding  the  external 
architecture  of  the  Babylonians,  or  of  the  Assyrians.  It 
is  true  that  the  lower  story  of  the  great  temple  at  Mugeyer 
has  stood  exposed  for  centuries  in  good  preservation,  but 


GROUPS  OF  COLUMNS  THE  PREVAILING  TYPE.        177 

it  is  -without  tlie  peculiar  features  above  described.  At 
the  Birs  Nimriid,  too,  so  little  of  the  edifice  was  visible 
under  the  superincumbent  pile  of  rubbish,  and  that  little 
in  such  a  deplorable  state  of  ruin,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
gain  any  light  upon  the  subject.  These  were  the  only 
two  Babylonian  edifices  which,  previous  to  the  discovery 
of  Wuswas,  exhibited  any  external  features.  Neither  Mr 
Layard's  excavations  at  Koyunjuk  and  Nimrud,  nor 
those  of  M.  Botta  at  Khorsabad,  furnished  any  idea  as  to 
the  exteriors  of  the  Assyrian  palaces.  Except  at  the 
grand  entrance  of  Sargon's  palace  at  Khorsabad,  and  that 
of  Sennacherib  at  Koyunjuk,  guarded  by  their  colossal 
bulls  and  attendant  human  figures,  no  portion  of  the 
outer  walls  of  an  Assyrian  palace  had  ever,  up  to  that 
time,  been  uncovered.  For  the  first  time,  then,  Wuswas 
advances  some  positive  data  by  which  to  reconstruct  the  ■ 
exterior  of  a  Ninevite  palace.  It  is  not,  however,  extra- 
ordinary that  this  had  previously  escaped  discovery. 
The  walls  of  the  palaces  erected  by  the  Assyrian  kings 
were  merely  composed  of  unbaked  bricks,  which,  in  a 
more  humid  climate  than  that  of  Chaldaea,  crumbled 
away  when  they  ceased  to  be  cared  for,  forming  a  com- 
pact mass  with  the  earth  and  rubbish  under  which  they 
were  eventually  buried.  Khorsabad,  however,  appears 
to  have  escaped  the  destruction  which  befell  the  other 
palaces  of  Assyria,  and  to  have  continued  in  a  remarkably 
perfect  condition  when  explored  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment. To  the  perseverance  of  M.  Victor  Place,  the  late 
French  Consul  at  Mosul,  is  due  the  credit  of  having  first 
discovered  and  exposed  the  exterior  of  an  undoubted 
Assyrian  edifice.  It  is  remarkable  that  not  only  was  the 
discovery  made  about  the  time  of  my  excavations  at 
Wuswas,  but  also  that  the  architectural  peculiarities  of 
the  two  edifices  are  so  similar  that  no  possible  doubt  can  be 
thrown  on  their  common  origin.     The  whole  exteriors  of 

M 


178    REVIVAL  OF  THE  STYLE  UNDER  THE  SASSANIANS. 

the  tower  and  liarem  of  Sargon,  at  Khorsabad,  exhibit  a 
modified  representation  of  the  Wuswas  fa9ade  ;  the  same 
rude  cokimns,  without  capital  or  base,  are  ranged  in  sets 
of  seven  together,  side  by  side ;  and  the  same  dentated 
recesses  or  chasings  separate  the  groups,  varied  only  by  the 
insertion  of  a  single  column,  or  a  cluster  of  three,  between 
them.  The  wall  at  Khorsabad  unfortunately  terminates 
before  the  columns  have  attained  their  full  height ;  con- 
sequently, this  portion  of  the  Wuswas  design  with  its 
crescents  are  not  visible.  Wuswas  therefore  still  remains 
the  most  perfect  exterior  of  its  class. 

I  several  times  subsequently  uncovered  columns  ar- 
ranged in  Hke  manner,  with  chasings  at  their  sides,  on  the 
exterior  of  the  south-east  palace  at  Nimrud. 

At  a  later  date.  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson  ascertained  that 
the  same  system  of  half-column  groups  and  chasings 
occurs  on  the  lowest  terrace  or  story  of  the  Bii'S  Nimrud ; 
but  the  results  of  his  discoveries  at  that  locality  are  as  yet 
only  partially  made  public. 

That  gTOups  of  columns  and  double  recesses  were  the 
prevailing  type  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  external 
architecture  there  can  be  little  doubt,  and  future  excava- 
tions in  those  countries  may  develop  the  fact  more  fully/' 

This  native  style  ceased  with  the  introduction  of  Greek 
art  and  its  chaste  ornamentation  during  the  occupation 
of  the  coimtry  under  the  Seleucidse  ;  but  a  slight  revival 
probably  took  place  under  the  Sassanians.  We  have 
several  edifices  of  the  latter  period,  such  as  the  Tauki  Kesra 
at  Ctesiphon,  and  the  Palace  of  Firuzabad  in  Southern 
Persia,  which  in  all  essential  particulars  so  much  resemble 
Wuswas  as  to  prove  that  the  Sassanians  borrowed  most 

*  In  several  Koyunjuk  sculptures,  one  of  which  is  engraved  in  Mr 
Layard's  "  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  647,  the  double  recesses  or  chasings 
are  precisely  delineated,  and  afford  further  proof — if  such  be  required — 
of  their  adaptation  to  the  exterior  of  Assyrian  edifices. 


INTERIOR  OF  WUSWAS. 


179 


of  their  peculiarities  from  earlier  native  examples.*  In 
the  two  buildings  mentioned,  we  have  the  same  dull, 
heavy  aspect,  without  break  or  window,  and  the  same 
repetition  of  inelegant  columns  and  narrow  arches,  which 
take  the  place  of  stepped  recesses  in  the  earlier  edifices. 

Having  said  thus  much  on  the  external  character  of 
Wuswas,  it  is  time  to  explore  its  interior.     Here,  however, 
I  experienced   much    difficulty.      It  has   been    already 
stated  that  the  enormous  thickness  of  the  south-west  wall, 
and  the  accumulation  of  bricks,  are  likely  to  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  the 
building  is  of  solid 
construction.  Sub- 
sequent     excava- 
tions,       however, 
proved    that    this 
is    not    the    case, 
but  that   a  prin- 
cipal     entrance,t 
with   plain   brick 
jambs,      conducts 
into  a  large  outer 
court,  with  cham- 
bers on  either  side. 
Beyond  it  is    an- 
other hall  similar- 
ly arranged.     My 
excavations    were 
commenced  on  the 
summit,     at     the 
south  -  west     side, 

where  certain   hollows  and  lineal   elevations  of  bricks 
indicated  faint  outlines   of    rooms.      But  the  immense 

•  Fergusson's  « Illustrated  Handbook  of  Aixhitecture,"  voL  i,,  p.  373. 
t  Ate. 


Plan  of  the  Great  Edifice  at  Wuswas. 


180  ARCHED  ROOF. 

thickness  of  the  walls  compared  with  the  size  of  the 
chambers,  for  a  length  of  time  defeated  my  purpose,  and 
I  was  almost  inclined  to  the  belief  that  the  great  mass  of 
building  was  a  solid  block  of  brickwork.  Success, 
however,  ultimately  rewarded  my  labours,  and  I  had 
the  satisfaction  of  at  least  tracing  the  walls  of  nearly 
seven  chambers,  the  general  arrangement  of  whicli 
resembles,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  that  of  the  Asspian 
palaces,  as  respects  want  of  uniformity  in  size  and  shape, 
and  the  position  of  the  doorway  at  the  sides  rather  than 
the  centres  of  the  rooms.  The  largest  chamber  or  hall  ^" 
measures  fifty-seven  feet  by  thirty  feet ;  and  the  smallest,  t 
adjoining  it,  nine  feet  by  thirty  feet.  A  shaft  was  dug  in 
the  former,  and  the  rubbish  entirely  cleared  out  of  the 
latter  to  the  depth  of  twenty-three  feet  and  a  half.  The 
walls  were  rudely  plastered,  but  did  not  exhibit  any  trace 
of  colour.  Portions  of  date-wood  were  found  in  the  small 
chamber,  and  apertures  for  beams  are  traceable  in  the 
walls  twelve  feet  from  the  brick  pavement.  These  extend, 
however,  only  partially  the  length  of  the  room,  leaving  a 
space  by  which  light  may  have  passed  to  the  lower 
apartment,  or  by  which  a  stair  may  have  communicated 
between  the  upper  and  ground-floor  rooms.  The  other 
chambers  must  have  been  in  some  measure  liohted  from 
above,  but  the  precise  mode  is  conjectural,  since  there  is 
neither  window  nor  door  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
front  by  which  light  could  have  been  admitted.  J 

♦  A  of  Plan.  t  B  of  Plan. 

X  In  the  above  description  of  the  architectural  peculiarities  of  the 
Wuswas  edifice,  I  have  largely  availed  myself  of  the  valuable  and  concise 
report  which,  at  my  request,  Mr  Boutcher  prepared  on  the  spot  for  the 
Committee  of  the  Assyi'ian  Excavation  Fund.  I  take  this  opjjortunity  of 
eipressiug  my  obligations  to  that  gentleman  for  the  great  assistance  he 
afforded  me  in  my  labours  both  in  Chaldoea  and  AssjTia,  and  of  directing 
attention  to  the  very  beautiful  collection  of  drawings  which  he  made  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  expedition.  These  drawings  are  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the  collection  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 


THE  ARCH  versus  THE  COLUMN  IN  ASSYRIA.  181 

The  rubbish,  as  I  heave  before  mentioned,  completely 
filled  every  chamber ;  so  that,  having  ascertained  the 
non-existence  of  sculptures  in  two  apartments,  I  did  not 
deem  it  advisable  to  explore  further.  This  extent  of 
rubbish,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  great  thickness 
and  arrangement  of  the  walls,  gives  some  idea  of  the  size 
and  roof  of  the  fallen  superstructure.  On  reference  to  the 
plan,  it  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  great  dispropor- 
tion in  the  relative  thickness  of  the  flank  and  front  walls 
of  the  building,  but,  if  we  consider  the  wall  of  the  fagade 
to  be  the  side  wall  of  the  two  large  chambers,  its  thickness 
may  be  accounted  for.  On  further  examination  we  shall 
find  the  flank  walls  of  every  chamber  thicker  or  slighter 
in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  chamber,  wliich  is 
precisely  what  would  be  necessary,  if,  as  I  believe,  each 
chamber  were  covered  with  a  brick  arch. 

I  am  here  induced  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  Assyrian  palaces.  In  his  admirably 
conceived  restorations,  Mr  Fergusson"'  everywhere  adopts 
the  conclusion  that,  as  the  span  between  the  walls  was 
frequently  too  great  to  admit  of  the  roof  being  supported 
by  horizontal  beams,  the  Assyrians  had  recourse  to 
columns  in  preference  to  all  other  modes  of  building.  He 
supports  his  arguments  by  examples  derived  from  India, 
Persia,  and  elsewhere,  and  his  reasoning  is  clear  and 
satisfactory,  as  far  as  it  goes.  It  may  be  presumptuous 
in  me  to  differ  from  one  who  has  so  intimately  investi- 
gated this  and  similar  subjects,  but  it  strikes  me,  from 
actual  observation  of  these  ruins,  that  Mr  Fergusson's 
theory  is  founded  in  error.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  the 
Ass}Tians  used  the  column,  because  the  bases  are  stiU 
found — but  always   at    doorways   and  not   within   the 

and  will  well  repay  the  examination  of  those  interested  in  the  subject  of 
Chaldajan  and  Assyrian  antiquities. 

*  "  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored,"  p.  270  et  seq. 


182         THE  ARCH  versus  THE  COLUMN  IN  ASSYRIA. 

rooms  ; — they  have  never  yet  been  discovered  in  the  latter 
position.  When  Mr  Fergusson  arrived  at  this  conclusion 
he  was  not  aware  that  the  Assyrians  really  made  use  of 
the  arch  on  a  grand  scale ;  but  this  has  since  been  fully 
proved  at  Khors^b^d,  where  magnificent  arches,  of  sun- 
diied  brick,  still  rest  on  the  massive  backs  of  the  colossal 
bulls  which  guard  the  great  gateways  leading  into  the 
city,  and  shew  that,  not  only  did  the  Assyrians  under- 
stand the  construction  ot  an  arch,  but  also  its  use  as  a 
decorative  feature. 

However  admirably  an  open  chamber,  supported  on 
columns,  might  be  suited  to  the  lofty  or  cooler  regions  of 
Persia  or  India,  where  refreshing  breezes  at  intervals 
relieve  the  heat  of  the  day,  they  are  not  well  adapted  to 
the  continuous  sultriness  of  an  Assyrian  climate.  The 
natives  of  Mosul,  at  the  present  day,  do  not  use  colunms 
in  preference  to  arches,  and  my  belief  is  that  customs 
have  not  much  altered  in  that  region  since  the  days  of 
Sennacherib.  To  exclude  heat  and  rain,  nothing  can 
be  better  adapted  than  the  lofty  arch,  as  it  is  still  there 
employed.  The  Hght  is  frequently  admitted  by  small 
windows,  immediately  under  the  spring  of  the  arch.  A 
similar  mode  of  lighting,  I  have  no  doubt,  prevailed  in 
the  ancient  palaces,  than  which  a  better  system  could  not 
be  adopted  for  the  display  of  their  wonderful  bas-rehefs. 
These  never  look  so  well  as  in  a  trench,  with  the  sub- 
dued light  admitted  through  a  small  hole  above.  The 
great  thickness  of  the  walls  in  the  Nineveh  palaces  is,  I 
am  convinced,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rooms  were 
vaulted,  as  first  suggested  by  M.  E.  Flandin.'''  An 
arch,  constructed  of  such  mud  bricks  as  those  still 
standing  at  Khorsabad,  would  in  its  fall  cover  up  and 
preserve  the  sculptures  uninjured,  exactly  as  they  are 
disclosed  to  us  by  the  excavations.  This,  too,  will  account 
•  "  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes." 


THE  AGE  OF  THE  WUSWAS  EDIFICE.  183 

for  the  great  quantity  of  earth  which  fills  all  the  chambers 
of  the  palaces.'"'  This  is  precisely  what  has  happened  at 
Wiiswas  with  the  brickwork  of  the  superstructure,  and 
which  I  have  little  doubt  was  vaulted. 

The  bricks  used  in  the  construction  of  this  edifice  mea- 
sure twelve  and  a  half  inches  square  by  tln^ee  inches  thick. 
Each  is  marked  on  its  under  side  with  a  deeply  impressed 
triangular  stamp  or  wedge,  which  may  here  be  regarded 
as  a  sacred  emblem,  as  it  certainly  is  upon  the  altar  in 
the  National  Library  at  Paris,  and  on  many  Babylonian 
cylinders.  This  stamp  undoubtedly  indicates  the  charac- 
ter of  the  edifice  in  which  it  so  repeatedly  occurs. 

In  addition  to  this  wedge-shaped  stamp,  a  few  bricks 
are  likewise  impressed  with  an  oblong  die,  bearing  thirteen 
lines  of  minute  cuneiform  characters,  resembling  those 
which  occTU'  on  clay  cylinders,  but  so  extremely  indistinct 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  copy  the  legend.  Sir  Henry 
Eawlinson,  on  examining  one  of  these,  was  inclined, 
from  the  apparent  simplicity  of  a  few  characters,  to  regard 
them,  not  as  Babylonian,  hnt  as  Parthian,  or  even  late 
Sassanian  ;  and  he  therefore  pronounced  the  building  of 
Wuswas  to  belong  to  a  post-Babylonian  age.  He  argued, 
too,  that  there  was  nothing  Babylonian  in  the  character, 
design,  or  architecture  of  the  building,  which  would 
favour  the  idea  of  its  greater  antiquity.  This  was, 
however,  pre^dous  to  M.  Place's  discoveries  at  KJiorsab^d, 
and  to  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson's  own  excavations  at  the 

*  The  vaulted  roofs  of  the  houses  and  mosques  at  Mosul  are,  however, 
constructed  of  gypsum  plaster  and  broken  bricks,  the  terraces  being  covered 
■with  mud  and  earth.  Such  may  have  been  the  case  in  the  palaces  of 
ancient  Nineveh.  The  numerous  fragments  of  bricks  and  lumps  of  decom- 
posing gypsum  in  the  soil  above  the  sculptures,  is  strong  presumptive 
evidence  that  this  plan  of  constructing  their  roofs  was  adopted  by  the 
Assyrians.  This  explanation  would  entirely  do  away  with  the  necessity  for 
columns,  and  the  difficulty  of  erecting  vaulted  ai-ches  of  mud  bricks  over 
rooms  thirty-three  feet  wide,  which  is  the  chief  objection  raised  to  the  sys- 
tem of  arched  roofing  at  Nineveh. 


184  THE  AGE  OF  THE  WUSWAS  EDIFICE. 

Birs  Ninu'iid — at  botli  which  places,  as  I  have  elsewhere 
mentioned,  precisely  the  same  architectural  features  were 
met  with  in  edifices  of  undoubted  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian origin.  Admitting  the  possibility  that  the  Sassanians 
adoj)ted  in  full  the  style  of  the  Babylonians,  it  is  extremely 
improbable  that  it  should  have  remained  wholly  unin- 
fluenced by  the  introduction  of  a  more  classic  taste  during 
the  Greek  occupation  of  Mesopotamia  ;  and  that  a  style 
so  rude  and  unsightly  should  have  endured  unchanged 
even  during  the  dominion  of  the  Persians,  who,  long  pre- 
vious to  the  Parthians  and  Sassanians,  were  far  advanced 
in  art.  Such,  we  know,  was  not  the  case  ;  and,  although 
they  may  have  retained  the  elements  of  the  Babylonian 
style,  all  the  Sassanian  edifices  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  exhibit  a  decided  advance  in  art,  and  an 
adaptation  of  the  more  elegant  designs  of  the  West. 

I  cannot  therefore  conform  to  the  opinion  that  the  AVus- 
was  temple  is  either  a  Parthian  or  a  Sassanian  structure. 
Although  it  has  hitherto  yielded  no  records  to  decide 
the  point  satisfactorily,  I  would  fain  believe  that  such 
will  ultimately  be  recovered  to  prove  its  undoubted 
Babylonian  origin.  It  is  impossible  at  present  to  assign 
to  it  other  than  an  approximate  date.  From  the  discovery 
of  a  few  fragments  of  bricks,  bearing  the  name  of  Sin- 
Shada — probably  derived  from  the  upper  story  of  the 
Buwariyya,  and  built  into  the  entrance  jamb — it  cannot  be 
older  than  1500  B.C.  (the  probability  is  that  it  is  much 
later),  and,  as  the  style  of  architecture  seems  to  have  been 
at  its  height  in  the  times  of  Sargon  and  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Wuswas  temple  was  perhaps  erected  about  the  seventh  or 
eighth  century  B.C. 

With  regard  to  the  object  for  which  this  immense 
edifice  was  built,  it  is,  of  course,  presumptuous  to  pro- 
nounce an  opinion  with  so  little  to  guide  us.  The  wedge, 
as  a  sacred  emblem,  might  equally  well  be  applied  to  a 


CHALDiEA  GENERALLY  WITHOUT  SCULPTURES.        185 

palace,  a  temple,  or  a  royal  tomb.  It  will,  I  fear,  be  long 
before  any  positive  data  can  be  obtained  to  decide  the 
question.  The  fact,  however,  that  Warka  was  a  great 
Necropohs,  and  that  the  Greek  historian  Arrian  says  that 
the  Assyrian  kings  were  buried  somewhere  in  the  Chal- 
daean  marshes,  rather  tends  to  the  supposition  that  two  at 
least  of  the  monster  edifices  at  Warka  were  among  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  to  which  Arrian  alludes.'^"' 

With  the  exception  of  several  fragments  of  coloured 
enamelled  bricks,  similar  to  those  found  on  the  ruins  of 
the  Kasr  at  Babylon,  there  was  nothing  in  or  around  the 
edifice  which  indicated  the  mode  of  decoration  employed  ; 
and  as  AVuswas  failed  to  yield  sculptured  bas-reliefs,  we 
must,  I  fear,  give  up  all  hope  of  discovering  works  of  this 
nature  in  Babylonia.  It  is  not,  however,  surprising  that 
the  palaces  and  temples  of  this  region  should  be  without 
sculptured  slabs,  because  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  lower 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  do  not  furnish  stone  suited  to  the 
purpose.  Any  that  might  be  used  must  have  been  pro- 
cured at  great  expense,  and  conveyed  a  considerable 
distance  down  the  river.  Bricks  and  plaster,  therefore, 
naturally  took  the  place  of  the  gypsum  slabs  which 
adorned  the  palaces  of  Assyria,  and  were  obtainable  in 
any  quantity  from  the  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Nineveh. 

Warka,  howaver,  is  not  without  one  specimen  of  ancient 
sculpture.  My  friend  Mr  T.  Kerr  Lynch  (who  took  ad- 
vantage of  my  last  journey  to  accompany  me  from  Bagh- 
dad on  a  visit  to  the  ruins)  in  passing  over  the  mounds, 
directed  my  attention  to  an  isolated  lump  of  basalt  pro- 
jecting through  the  soft  and  yielding  soil.  It  lay  about 
400  feet  south  of  the  Buwariyya  upon  the  slope  of  the 
great  platform.t     On  turning  over  the  block,  it  proved 

*  Arrian  de  Exped.  Alex.,  vii.  22. 
+  At  I  on  the  General  Plan. 


186  THE  WARRIOR  IN  BASALT. 

to  be  a  fragment  of  coarse  columnar  basalt,  nearly 
four  feet  long,  but  broken  into  four  pieces.  Three  sides 
were  uncut,  but  the  fourth  bore  upon  it  a  rude  figure 
in  low  relief.  A  warrior  was  represented  in  short  tunic, 
confined  round  the  waist  with  a  girdle.  In  the  belt 
was  a  short  sword  or  dao-o-er.  The  louo;  hair  was  bound 
round  the  head  with  a  narrow  fillet.  The  left  arm 
crossed  the  breast,  while  the  right,  raised  and  wielding  a 
short  spear,  was  in  the  act  of  striking  a  prostrate  foe  or 
animal,  which  did  not,  however,  appear  on  the  sculpture. 
The  design  was  very  spirited,  and  the  outline  remarkably 
correct,  but  the  execution  was  rough  and  unfinished. 
There  was  a  certain  archaic  character  about  the  bas-rehef 
which  marked  it  as  one  of  the  earliest  relics  on  the  ruins. 
The  Arabs,  seldom  accustomed  to  see  blocks  of  stone  upon 
the  mounds,  invariably  regard  them  as  talismans  or  trea- 
sures. The  sculpture  in  question  was  so  looked  on  by 
my  Tuweyba  friends,  who  have  little  respect  for  any- 
thing but  gold.  In  hope  of  finding  its  interior  filled 
with  gold,  they  had  lighted  fires  around  it  at  various 
times ;  but,  observing  the  little  effect  thus  produced, 
they  managed  to  break  it  by  other  means.  It  had  suf- 
fered considerably  from  exposure  and  ill-usage,  and  was 
valueless  to  bring  away  as  a  work  of  art. 

This  discovery  caused  me  to  expend  much  time  and 
labour  in  its  vicinity,  searching  for  the  locality  from 
whence  it  had  been  derived,  and  where  I  imagined  there 
might  be  other  specimens  of  a  similar  kind.  My  work, 
however,  resulted  in  total  disapjpointment. 


CHAPTER  XVIL 

New  Styles  of  Decorative  Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab  Aversion 
to  Steady  Labour — Blood-Feud  between  the  Tuweyba  and  El-Bej 
— The  Encounter  Frustrated — ^The  Feud  Healed — Diversions  after 
the  Work  of  the  Day. 

About  one  hundred  feet  north  of  the  sculpture  just 
described,  close  to  the  southern  angle  of  the  Buwariyya 
enclosure,  I  was  fortunate  in  meeting  with  the  remains 
of  an  edifice,""'  which  bears  analogy  to  that  of  Wuswas, 
and  is,  without  exception,  perfectly  unique  in  its  con- 
struction. Situated  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  desert, 
it  may  also  be  regarded  as  of  early  origin,  and  although 
only  a  fragment,  it  yields  to  none  in  interest.  I  had 
frequently  noticed  a  number  of  small  yellow  terra-cotta 


Terra-cotta  Cone,  natural  size. 

cones,  three  inches  and  a  half  long,  arranged  in  half 
circles  on  the  surface  of  the  mound,  and  was  much 
perplexed  to  imagine  what  they  were.  They  proved 
to  be  part  of  a  wall,  thirty  feet  long,  entirely  composed 
of  these  cones  imbedded  in  a  cement  of  mud  mixed 

*  At  E  on  Plan. 


188 


WALL  OF  TERRA-COTTA  CONES. 


witli  chopped  straw.  They  were  fixed  liorizontally  mth 
their  circular  bases  facing  outwards.  Some  had  been 
dipped  in  red  and  black  colour,  and  were  arranged  in 
various  ornamental  patterns,  such  as  diamonds,  triangles, 
zigzags,  and  stripes,  which  had  a  remarkably  pleasing 
effect.     The  wall  which  these  cones  ornamented  consisted 


j=j' 


Elevation  and  Plan  of  the  Terra-cotta  Cone  Wall,  Warka. 

of  a  plane  surface  fourteen  feet  ten  inches  long,  broken  away 
for  a  short  space  in  the  centre,  and  projecting  one  foot  nine 
inches  beyond  a  series  of  half-columns,  arranged  precisely 
as  in  the  Wuswas  facade  side  by  side.  Two  of  these 
columns  aj^peared  on  one  side  of  the  projection,  and  six  on 
the  other.  Each  differed  from  its  next  neighbour  in  design, 
but  that  first  from  the  plane  wall  only  measured  one  foot 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  while  the  others  were  each  two  feet 
six  inches.  It  would  have  been  interestino-  to  have  ascer- 
tained  that  the  number  of  columns  in  each  group  agreed 
with  those  at  Wuswas,  but  unfortunately  the  wall  ceased 
before  completing  the  number — seven,  and  the  height  of 
the  whole  did  not  exceed  six  feet.  Trenches  in  various 
directions  failed  to  discover  other  portions  of  this  edifice ; 
neither  could  any  trace  of  walHng  behind  the  cones  be 
distinguished  from  the  surrounding  mass  of  earth.  That 
some  supporting  wall  formerly  existed  is,  however,  evi- 
dent from  the  slender  nature  of  the  remainino-  fabric. 


CONES  OF  TERRA-COTTA.  189 

In  ancient  Egyptian  tombs,  similar  but  much  larger 
cones  are  found,  with  hieroglyphs  stamped  upon  their 
bases,  several  specimens  of  which  are  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. They  are  supposed  to  have  a  sepulchral  character, 
and  to  have  been  let  into  the  wall  at  the  entrance  of  the 
tomb,  although  they  have  never  been  ol)served  in  that 
position.  The  hieroglyphs  are  probably  the  names  of  the 
deceased.  No  marks  or  inscriptions  occur  on  these  Warka 
cones,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  they  were 
in  a  similar  manner  connected  with  the  burial  of  the 
dead.  The  ascertained  fact,  before  noticed,  that  the  site 
was  a  vast  cemetery,  is  strong  presumptive  evidence  in 
favour  of  tliis  conclusion. 

Cones  of  the  same  kind  are  of  frequent  occurrence  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  great  platform,  sometimes  firmly  fixed 
together  in  strong  white  plaster  or  cement,  but  no  other 
building  was  observed  with  them  in  situ.  There  is,  how- 
ever, little  doubt  that  several  might  be  discovered  by 
largely  excavating  in  the  mounds.  Similar  cones  are 
found  in  many  other  ruins  of  undoul)ted  Babylonian  age, 
which,  unlike  Warka,  have  escaped  being  built  upon  by 
succeeding  races.  Mr  Taylor  discovered  them  plentifully, 
both  at  Miigeyer  and  Abu  Shehreyn,  at  which  latter  place 
they  occurred  ten  inches  in  length,  composed  of  limestone 
and  marble,  and  sometimes  with  a  rim  roimd  the  edge 
filled  with  copper.'"'"  They  were,  undoubtedly,  much  used 
as  an  architectural  decoration  in  Lower  Chaldsea,  and 
always  in  connexion  with  sepulchral  remains. 

Cones,  or  rather  horns  of  baked  clay,  frequently  occur 
on  the  same  ruins,  inscribed  round  the  thick  part  of 
the  circumference  in  early  and  complicated  cuneiform 
characters.  They,  however,  appear  to  have  been  attached 
to  some  other  object,  and  are  usually  bent  at  the  summit 

*  See  Mr  Taylor's  Memoirs  on  the  ]\Itigeyer  and  Abti  Shehreyn,  in  the 
"Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xv.,  pages  268,  274,  411,  416. 


190  POT-WORK  DECORATION. 

of  the  cone.  One  of  these,  obtained  by  me  at  Warka, 
bears  on  it  the  name  of  Bel  or  Belus.  It  is  engraved  in 
Mr  Layard's  "Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  564,  and  is  now 
in  the  British  IMuseum. 

Warka  is  a  complete  mine  for  extraordinary  and  un- 
heard-of modes  of  decoration  in  architecture.  Within  a 
stone's  throw  of  the  south-west  fa9ade  at  Wuswas,  is 
another  mound  crowned  with  a  curious  building,  which 
has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  cone-brick  structure 
last  described.  It  rises  abruptly  from  the  base  of  the 
artificial  mound"'  on  which  the  Wuswas  ruin  stands,  and 
appears  to  have  been  a  tower  of  unbaked  brick.  My 
attention  was  particularly  directed  to  it  by  the  enormous 
quantity  of  broken  pottery  and  conical  ends  of  jars 
which  lay  around.  On  excavating  midway  up  its  north 
side,  I  came  upon  a  kind  of  basement  or  perhaps  terrace 
of  mud-brick  abutting  against  a  mass  of  compact  earth. 
Upon  the  latter  was  raised  a  wall  composed  entirely  of 
unbaked  bricks,  and  a  peculiar  species  of  conical  vase,  the 
fragments  of  which  lay  strewed  on  the  surface.  This  wall 
was  traced  about  one  hundred  feet,  but  was  extremely 
irregular  in  plan,  at  one  point  projecting  forward  four  feet, 
then  rounding  off  and  receding  eight  feet.  It  afterwards 
assumed  its  original  direction  for  forty-three  feet,  then 
made  an  obtuse  angle,  and  finally  bore  away  as  before, 
when  I  ceased  to  follow  it  further.  Above  the  foundation 
were  a  few  layers  of  mud-bricks,  superimposed  on  which 
were  three  rows  of  these  vases,  arranged  horizontally, 
mouths  outward,  and  immediately  above  each  other. 
This  order  of  brick  and  pot-work  was  repeated  thrice, 
and  was  succeeded  upwards  by  a  mass  of  unbaked  bricks. 
The  vases  vary  in  size  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  in  length, 
with  a  general  diameter  at  the  mouth  of  four  inches. 
The  cup  or  interior  is  only  six  inches  deep,  consequently 

*  At  L  on  the  General  Plan. 


THE  GREAT  RUIN.  191 

the  conical  end  is  solid.  The  cup  was  formed  by  a 
regular  turning  apparatus.  These  vases,  from  their  great 
thickness  throughout,  are  capable  of  bearing  very  con- 
siderable pressure,  although  the  greatest  proportion  of 
them  was  broken  by  the  superincumbent  mass  of  earth. 
With  their  circular  mouths  outwards  they  produced  a 
very  strange  effect — more  striking  even  than  that  of  the 
painted  cone  edifice  already  described. 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  piu-pose  for  which  these 
vases  were  designed.  We  know,  however,  that  large  in- 
flated vases  were  sometimes  built  into  the  walls  of  the 
<jrreek  rooms,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  choruses 
resound  during  their  revels ;  but  in  this  case  the  vases 
were  within,  not  outside  a  chamber,  and  had  spacious, 
instead  of  extremely  narrow  and  shallow  cups.  The 
vases  at  Warka  could  not  therefore  have  been  applied  to 
the  same  use.  Excepting  as  another  application  of  the 
cone  for  an  ornamental  design,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
their  utility,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  same  system 
of  architectural  embellishment  may  be  traced  in  the 
tasteful  designs  of  vases  and  pipe-tiles,  which  form  such 
elegant  open-work  patterns  in  the  terrace  walls  of  Mosul 
and  other  Eastern  towns  on  the  tops  of  the  houses, 
where  the  natives  sleep  during  the  hot  nights  of  summer. 
The  interior  of  this  structure  appeared  to  be  wholly 
composed  of  mud  bricks  and  earth.  An  excavation  was 
made  into  its  centre  without  yielding  any  further  infor- 
mation. 

Separated  on  the  south  from  this  incomprehensible  build- 
ing and  from  that  of  Wuswas  by  a  deep  ravine,  is  a  second 
immense  structure'"'  which  resembles  Wuswas  in  area  and 
general  disposition  of  its  plan  and  offices,  except  that  it 
has  no  external  court.  The  bricks  are  of  the  same  size 
and  make,  and  are  impressed  with  a  similar  triangular 
*  C  on  the  General  Plan. 


192  ARAB  AVERSION  TO  WORK. 

stamp.  It  is  in  like  manner  encumbered  with  rubbish 
which  covers  its  summit  and  sides,  but  it  is  more 
massive  and  lofty  than  Wuswas,  and  consequently  more 
imposing  in  the  distance.  Both  edifices  were  probably 
erected  about  the  same  time,  and  for  a  similar  purpose, 
and  fell  to  ruins  together.  Having  failed  to  make  any 
discoveries  of  importance  in  the  interior  of  Wuswas,  I  did 
not  attempt  excavations  at  this  edifice,  because  the 
immense  expense  and  danger  attending  the  removal  of 
the  bricks  were  scarcely  counterbalanced  by  the  probability 
of  any  adequate  result  being  obtained. 

The  Arabs,  moreover,  were  unused  to  such  severe 
labour,  and  could  mth  difficulty  be  persuaded  to  work  in 
these  piles  of  bricks.  Their  whole  lives  had  been  spent 
in  the  open  desert  with  their  clubs  and  spears,  either 
attacking  their  foes  or  defending  their  tents.  They  could 
scarcely  brook  the  degradation  of  being  employed  like 
fellahs  or  day-labourers, — while  the  continuous  work, 
without  any  corresponding  result,  was  almost  beyond  the 
endurance  of  their  sanguine  temperaments.  It  would 
have  been  impossible  to  have  kept  them  at  the  excavations 
had  there  not  been  a  constant  di'ead  of  attack  from  without, 
— and  mutual  jealousy  among  the  three  tribes  employed. 
The  signal  that  human  beings  were  seen  in  the  horizon 
was  hailed  by  me  with  pleasure,  because  the  excitement 
of  a  few  minutes  relieved  the  ill-suppressed  grumbling 
of  hours.  The  appearance  of  one  of  my  workmen  on  the 
summit  of  the  Buwariyya,  waving  a  piece  of  black  rag  on 
a  spear,  produced  a  general  ferment.  Implements  were 
thrown  aside,  the  war-cry  was  raised,  and  a  general  rush  took 
place  to  the  central  ruin.  Each  party  ranged  itself  round 
its  acknowledged  sheikh,  dancing,  yelling,  grunting,  and 
throwing  their  spears  and  clubs  into  the  air  in  a  state  of 
the  most  extraordinary  excitement,  which  did  not  cease 
tiU  they  were  completely  exhausted.     When  the  supposed 


BLOOD-FEUD  WITH  BEDOUINS.  193 

danger  passed  away,  all  returned  to  their  work  with  re- 
newed goodwill  and  energy. 

On  one  occasion  only  was  there  any  positive  danger. 
A  strong  party  of  the  Suweyd  division  of  El  Bej  Be- 
douins, numbering  about  two  hundred  tents,  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  and  encamped  with  their  flOcks,  herds,  and 
at  least  one  thousand  camels,  within  sight  of  my  little 
settlement  and  the  ruins.  How  their  flocks  found  sub- 
sistence in  that  barren  desert  was  utterly  beyond  my 
comprehension.  They  must  have  speedily  demolished  all 
the  scanty  supply  of  camel's  thorn  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  because  in  a  few  days  they  again  decamped  east- 
wards. The  day  after  their  arrival,  one  of  the  inferior 
sheikhs,  with  a  small  party  of  the  tribe,  passed  through 
the  ruins  on  his  way  to  pay  his  respects  to  the  Sheikh  of 
the  Muntefik.  The  Tuweyba  workmen  were  in  a  dreadful 
state  of  alarm,  because  there  was  blood-feud  between 
them  and  El  Bej,  which  arose  when  Sa  dun,  the  patron 
of  the  Tuweyba,  was  at  enmity  with  the  Wadi  four  years 
previously.  At  his  instigation  the  Mddan  tribes  attacked 
and  robbed  these  Bedouins  of  their  cattle,  several  men 
being  killed  on  either  side.  The  Tuweyba  audaciously 
defied  all  the  laws  of  honour,  and  outraged  all  the  fine 
feelings  of  the  high-class  Arabs,  by  stripping  the  wife  of 
the  Wadi,  whom  they  accidentally  encountered,  of  every 
article  of  clothing  and  jewellery  upon  her  person.  Nothing- 
could  excuse  such  an  indignity.  It  is  for  acts  such  as  this 
that  the  Madan  are  regarded  by  the  Bedouins  and  more 
honourable  Arabs  in  the  light  of  beasts  and  "  dogs,"  as 
they  were  called  by  my  Muntefik  guards.  The  sheikh, 
however,  behaved  well  when  he  encountered  his  foes  at 
Warka,  and  promised  there  should  be  no  fighting  while 
the  Tuweyba  were  under  my  protection,  adding : — "  You 
are  a  stranger  in  the  land,  and  El  Bej  has  no  desire  to  act 
inhospitably  to  strangers; — but  for  your  presence  the 

N 


194  MISCHIEF-MAKERS. 

Tuweyba  would  have  been  attacked  long  ago !  *  On 
departing,  lie  left  a  horseman  behind  to  look  after  the 
safety  of  my  excavators. 

On  the  day  following  this  meeting,  a  scene  took  place 
which  might  have  resulted  in  serious  consequences.  It 
so  happened  that  I  had  remained  in  camp  to  prepare  for 
the  departure  of  a  messenger  conveying  letters  to  Bagh- 
dad. A  large  number  of  Bedouins  went  up  from  their 
tents  to  the  mound  with  the  evident  intention  of  creating 
mischief.  They  first  of  all  accosted  my  servant  Ovannes, 
peremptorily  demanded  tobacco,  and  followed  him  from 
trench  to  trench,  repeating  their  demand  with  much  in- 
solence and  abuse,  and  finally  turning  upon  the  Tuwey- 
ba, whom  they  endeavoured  to  excite  by  threats  and 
hard  names.  The  horseman,  who  had  been  left  to  care 
for  our  safety,  without  hesitation  seized  the  ringleader, 
and  would  have  tied  and  beaten  him  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Tuweyba,  if  Ovannes  had  not  very  properly  in- 
terfered. The  Tuweyba  were  highly  exasperated  at  the 
insults  heaped  on  them,  and  were  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  restrained  by  my  overseers  from  making  an 
attack  upon  the  peace-breakers.  Ovannes,  who  had 
frequently  shewn  himself  equal  to  an  emergency,  and 
who  possessed  n,  much  more  courageous  spirit  than  is 
generally  evinced  by  natives  of  the  country,  mounted 
a  horse,  and  rode  off  at  full  speed  to  the  Bej  camp. 
He  had  ascertained  that  it  was  only  an  inferior  sheikh 
of  the  tribe  who  had  granted  his  protection,  but 
the  gTeat  chief,  Tellag-ibn-Terrif,  still  remained  to  be 
propitiated.  Ovannes  rode  directly  up  to  the  sheikli's 
tent,  demanding  to  see  him  and  to  know  if  Tellag  had 
instructed  his  people  to  act  as  they  had  done.  Tellag 
declared  they  had  done  so  without  his  knowledge  ; 
whereon  Ovannes  dismounted,  and,  as  a  stranger,  re- 
quired his  protection  for  ourselves  and   the    workmen. 


SCENE  AT  THE  BEDOUIN  CAMP.  195 

Telliig,  like  a  true  Bedouin,  struck  by  the  blunt,  straiglitfor- 
warcl  manner  of  Ovannes,  expressed  his  sorrow  at  what 
had  occurred,  and  repeated  the  promise  previously  made, 
that  as  lonsf  as  he  continued  in  the  neighbourhood,  there 
should  be  no  dissension  between  the  Bej  and  the  Tuwey- 
ba.  Coffee  was  introduced  as  the  bond  of  contract,  and 
they  were  in  the  act  of  vowing  eternal  friendship  when 
the  horseman,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  disturbance, 
rushed  in,  and  beo-an  to  abuse  Tellao:  in  strono-  terms  for 
allowing  his  people  to  create  a  quarrel  after  the  promise 
made  by  the  absent  sheikh.  Tellag  endured  his  reproofs 
for  some  time  in  tolerable  patience,  but  at  last  got  up 
and  repeatedly  struck  the  horseman  on  the  face,  who  in 
turn  became  exasperated,  and  attempted  to  spear  Tellag, 
when  Ovannes  got  between  them.  Our  champion  then 
ran  out  of  the  tent,  and,  in  his  excessive  indigna- 
tion, speared  some  half-dozen  camels  belonging  to  the 
man  who  had  been  the  chief  cause  of  the  disturbance. 

Tellag  kept  his  word.  The  next  morning  he  paid  me  a 
visit,  we  broke  bread  together,  and  were  from  that  mo- 
ment sworn  friends.  I  was  subsequently  indebted  to 
liim  for  several  acts  of  kindness,  and,  under  his  safe- 
guard, was  enabled  to  reach  many  points  in  the  interior 
of  the  Jezireh  which  would  have  been  otherwise  impos- 
sible. Before  quitting  the  country,  I  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  healing  the  feud  between  the  Bej  and  the 
Tuweyba,  and  the  compact  was  finally  sealed  by  the 
latter  agreeing  to  pay  Tellag  a  tribute  of  thirty  sheep- 
skins for  the  ensuing  year  ! 

The  joui-ney  of  four  miles  and  a  half  to  the  mounds, 
and  the  same  distance  back  to  camp  every  day,  was  a 
fatiguing  and  tedious  process  ;  nevertheless  it  was  ab- 
solutely necessary  that  it  should  be  performed,  and  we 
beguiled  the  weariness  of  the  way  to  the  best  of  our 
ability.     Every  morning  before  sunrise  the  implements 


196  OUK  DIVERSIONS. 

were  distributed  to  tlie  workmen,  with  wliich,  tlieir  clubs 
and  their  spears,  they  set  out  for  the  mounds  in  separate 
parties  according  to  their  tribes.  It  was  amusing  to  see 
how  clannish  they  were,  the  members  of  each  tribe  con- 
gregating together,  and  singing  in  opjoosition  their  own 
pecuHar  war-cry.  Sometimes  they  would  jog  along  in 
compact  columns,  singing  a  low,  monotonous  chant,  while 
their  bodies  swayed  to  and  fro  in  keeping  time.  At 
others,  especially  when  the  day's  work  was  concluded, 
they  would  become  more  excited,  perform  a  war-dance, 
advance  and  retire,  yell  and  throw  up  their  spears,  as  if 
feigning  an  engagement.  At  one  time  they  would  re- 
gard me  as  their  chief,  dance  round  my  horse,  brandish 
their  spears  and  pretend  to  defend  me  against  an  un- 
seen foe ;  at  another  I  was  an  enemy,  and  they  would 
unite  forces  to  charge  me,  with  sparkling  eyes  and  shew- 
ing their  white  teeth  in  excessive  delight.  Now  and 
then  they  woidd  challenge  me  to  a  race,  and  the  whole 
party  would  set  off  at  full  speed,  seemingly  untired  in 
spite  of  their  hard  day's  labour.  Notwithstanding  their 
wretchedness,  they  were  a  happy,  careless  race,  easily 
pleased  and  easily  excited.  With  aU  their  faults,  (which 
were  those  arising  from  circumstances  rather  than  dis- 
position,) they  were  amenable  to  kindness,  and  might  be 
soon  rendered  useful  members  of  society  under  proper 
guidance. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  chief  occupation  of 
these  Madan  Arabs  is  to  rob  and  plunder  without 
discrimination,  and  that  I  went  among  them  a  stranger, 
without  introduction,  for  the  sake  of  excavating  into 
the  mounds  which  they  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  gold 
mine,  it  is  highly  creditable  to  their  liberality  and 
tolerance  that  they  offered  no  opposition  to  my  proceed- 
ings. It  is  true  that  they  were  paid  for  their  labours ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  have  proved 


ARAB  TOLERANCE.  197 

faithless  to  a  ghydwr  just  as  to  one  of  their  own  race,  and 
'have  stripped  me  of  all  I  possessed  previous  to  my  de- 
parture from  among  them.  The  Tuweyba  considered 
Warka  to  be  their  own  peculiar  property,  and  made  con- 
siderable profit  by  ransacking  the  tombs  for  treasure. 


CHAPTER   XVIIl. 

The  absence  of  Tombs  in  the  Mounds  of  Assyria — Their  abundance  in 
Chald^ea — Warka  a  vast  Cemetery — Clay  Sarcophagi  of  various 
forms — Top-shaped  Vase,  or  "  Babylonian  Urn  " — Oval  Dish-cover 
Shape — Slipper-shape — Difficulties  of  Removal — Excitement  of  the 
Arabs — Gold  Ornaments — Coins — Vases — Terra-Cotta  Penates — 
Light-fingered  Arabs — The  Ordeal — Endurance  of  Pain — Earliest 
Eelics. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  long  suc- 
cession of  years  during  which  excavations  have  been  car- 
ried on  by  the  Enghsh  and  French  Governments  in  the 
mounds  of  Assyria,  not  a  single  instance  has  been  re- 
corded of  undoubted  Assyrian  sepulture.  It  is  true 
that  Mr  Layarcl  considers  the  great  cone  at  Nimrud  to 
have  been  a  royal  tomb,  and  that  I  myself  opened  a  rude 
vault,  seventeen  feet  below  the  floor  of  the  south-east 
palace  at  the  same  locahty ;  yet,  in  the  one  case,  no 
human  remains  were  found,  and  in  the  other,  there  was 
no  positive  evidence  of  their  true  age.'"'  The  natural 
inference  therefore  is,  that  the  Assyrians  either  made 
away  with  their  dead  by  some  other  method  than  by 
burial,  or  else  that  they  conveyed  them  to  some  distant 
locality.  If,  however,  Assyria  be  without  its  cemeteries, 
Chaldsea  is  full  of  them ;  every  mound  is  an  ancient 
burial-place  between  Niffar  and  Mugeyer !     It  would  be 

*  The  tombs  which  Mr  Layard  examined  above  the  south-east  palace, 
NimrM,  and  those  discovered  by  Mr  Vice-Consul  Bassam  at  Koytiujuk,  were 
undoubtedly  of  post- Assyrian  date. 


CHALD^A  THE  BURIAL-GROOND  OF  ASSYRIA.         199 

too  mucli,  with  our  present  knowledge,  to  say  positively 
that  Chaldaea  was  the  necropolis  of  Assyria,  but  it  is  by 
no  means  improbable  that  such  was  the  case.  Arrian,* 
the  Greek  historian,  in  describing  Alexander's  sail  into 
the  marshes  south  of  Babylon,  distinctly  states  that  most 
of  the  sepulchres  of  the  Assyrian  kings  were  there  con- 
structed, and  the  same  position  is  assigned  them  in  the 
Peutingerian  tables.  The  term  Assyria  however,  in  the 
old  geographers,  is  frequently  applied  to  Babylonia,  and 
the  tombs  alluded  to  may  therefore  be  those  only  of  the 
ancient  kings  of  Babylonia.  Still,  it  is  likely  that  the 
Assyrians  regarded  ^yiih.  peculiar  reverence  that  land 
out  of  which  Asshur  went  forth  and  builded  Nineveh, 
and  that  they  interred  their  dead  around  the  original 
seats  of  their  forefathers. 

Whether  this  were  so  or  not,  the  w^hole  region  of 
Lower  Chaldaea  abounds  in  sepulchral  cities  of  immense 
extent.  By  far  the  most  important  of  these  is  AVarka, 
where  the  enormous  accumulation  of  human  remains 
proves  that  it  was  a  peculiarly  sacred  spot,  and  that 
it  was  so  esteemed  for  many  centuries.  It  is  difficult 
to  convey  an}i:hing  like  a  correct  notion  of  the  piles 
upon  piles  of  human  relics  which  there  utterly  astound 
the  beholder.  Excepting  only  the  triangular  space  be- 
tween the  tlu-ee  principal  ruins,  the  whole  remainder  of 
the  platform,  the  whole  space  between  the  walls,  and  an 
unknown  extent  of  desert  beyond  them,  are  everywhere 
filled  with  the  bones  and  sepulchres  of  the  dead.  There 
is  probably  no  other  site  in  the  world  which  can  com- 
pare with  Warka  in  this  respect;  even  the  tombs  of 
ancient  Thebes  do  not  contain  such  an  aggregate  amount 
of  mortality.  From  its  foundation  by  Urukh  until 
finally  abandoned  by  the  Parthians — a  period  of  pro- 
bably 2500  years — Warka  appears  to  have  been  a  sa- 

*  De  Exped.  Alex.,  vii.  22. 


1200  GENERAL  USE  OF  CLAY. 

cred  burial-place!  In  the  same  manner  as  the  Persians 
at  the  present  day  convey  their  dead  from  the  most  re- 
mote corners  of  the  Shih's  dominions,  and  even  from 
India  itself,  to  the  holy  shrines  of  KerbeUa  and  Meshed 
'All,  so,  doubtless,  it  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient  people 
of  Babylonia  to  transport  the  bones  of  their  deceased  rela- 
tives and  friends  to  the  necropolis  of  Warka  and  other 
sites  in  the  dread  solitude  of  the  Chaldsean  marshes. 
The  two  great  rivers,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  w^ould 
like  the  Nile  in  Egypt  afford  an  admirable  means  of  con- 
veying them  from  a  distance,  even  from  the  upper  plains 
of  Assyria."^'* 

I  was  nowhere  enabled  to  ascertain  how  deep  in  the 
mounds  the  funereal  remains  extend,  although  in  several 
instances  trenches  were  driven  to  the  depth  of  thirty  feet, 
beyond  which  the  extreme  looseness  of  the  soil  prevented 
my  continuing  the  excavations  with  safety  to  the  work- 
men ;  but  I  have  every  reason  to  beHeve  that  the  same 
continuous  mass  of  dead  reaches  to  the  very  base  of  the 
highest  portion  of  the  central  platform — a  depth  of  sixty 
feet.  On  this  account  there  is  considerable  difficulty 
in  obtaining  information  concerning  the  most  ancient 
mode  of  disposing  of  the  dead  at  Warka.  It  is  only  at  the 
edges  of  the  mounds  where  least  built  upon,  that  the  un- 
doubted primitive  tombs  and  their  accompaniments  occur. 

In  a  country  where  stone  is  not  procurable,  the  most 
natural  material  for  architectural  and  domestic  use  is 
clay.  This  is  abundant  in  the  plains  of  the  Euphrates. 
Not  only  w^ere  the  edifices  of  Chaldsea,  as  we  have  seen, 

*  At  Baghcldd  a  custom  prevails  which  is  derived  from  a  period  long 
anterior  to  the  rise  of  i\Iohammedanism,  and  perhaps  connected  with 
some  ancient  ceremony  attending  the  transport  of  the  dead.  When  a  per- 
son is  sick,  a  relative  fastens  a  lighted  taper  to  a  piece  of  wood,  commits 
it  to  the  stream  of  the  Tigris,  and  prays  for  the  recovery  of  his  friend. 
Should  the  light  be  extinguished  before  it  recedes  from  his  sight,  he  con- 
cludes that  all  hope  is  past. 


"dish-cover"  COFFIN,  AND  CONTENTS.  201 

constructed  of  clay-brick,  but  the  same  material  in  a 
modified  form  was  adapted  to  tlie  manufacture  of  small 
utensils  and  extended  even  to  sepulchral  vases.  The 
invention  of  the  potter  appears  to  have  been  racked  in 
designing  new  forms,  and  their  endless  variety  through- 
oat  Chaldsea  may  eventually  prove  of  much  use  in  deter- 
mining the  age  of  the  ruins  where  each  occurs.  In  the 
same  way  several  difierent  forms  of  funereal  jars  and  sar- 
cophagi have  prevailed  at  certain  distinct  periods,  the  dates 
of  which  are  ascertained  by  means  of  accompanying  relics. 

The  earliest  and  most  common  form  throughout  Baby- 
lonia, and  the  one  which  prevailed  down  to  the  time  of 
the  Parthians,  is  the  large,  top-shaped  vase,  well  known 
as  the  "  Babylonian  urn."  It  is  lined  inside  with  bitumen, 
and  has  its  mouth  usually  covered  with  bricks,  but  many 
at  Warka  possess  a  cover  of  the  same  material  cemented 
to  the  urn.  They  contain  the  bones  of  a  human  being, 
or  only  a  single  head,  with  engraved  cylinders  and  gems, 
beads  and  neck  ornaments,  and  rings  cut  out  of  marine 
shells.  Sometimes  two  of  these  vessels  are  placed  mouth 
to  mouth,  and  then  cemented  together,  one  mouth  fitting 
into  the  other  with  great  exactness ;  such  contain  one  or 
more  bodies. 

Another  undoubtedly  early  form  is  very  curious  and 
original.  It  resembles  an  oval  dish-cover,  the  sides  slop- 
ing outwards  towards  the  base  which  rests  on  a  projecting 
rim.  The  dimensions  vary  from  four  to  seven  feet  long, 
about  two  feet  wide,  and  from  one  to  three  feet  deep.  On 
carefully  removing  this  cover,  the  skeleton  is  seen  reclin- 
ing generally  on  the  left  side,  but  trussed  like  a  fowl,  the 
legs  being  drawn  up  and  bent  at  the  knees  to  fit  the  size 
of  the  cover.  Sometimes  the  skull  rests  on  the  bones  of 
the  left  hand,  while  those  of  the  right  holding  cylinders  of 
agate  or  meteoric  stone,  and  small  personal  ornaments, 
have  fallen  into  a  copper  bowl  in  front.     In  one  instance 


202  GLAZED  COFFINS. 

I  ascertained  that  an  enormous  quantity  of  hair  was  con- 
fined in  a  finely-netted  head-dress,  the  meshes  of  which 
were  distinctly  discernible.  There  were  also  fragments 
of  blue  linen  upon  various  parts  of  the  skeleton,  and  the 
remains  of  a  wooden  box,  which  had  contained  two  ma- 
rine shells'"'  (a  murex  and  a  cone)  of  the  same  species  as 
those  occurring  abundantly  in  the  ruins.  The  bones  of 
the  toes,  fingers,  ankles,  and  wrists,  were  encircled  with 
bano-les  or  rino;s  of  brass.  Lara;e  iars  and  small  sher- 
behs  or  drinking  vases  were  placed  with  the  l)ody  beneath 
the  sepulchral  cover.  This  mode  of  burial  was  not  fre- 
quently observed  by  me  at  Warka,  but,  when  it  did  occur, 
it  was  always  at  the  extreme  edge  of  the  mound,  nearly 
on  a  level  with  the  plain.  ]\Ir  Taylor,  however,  dis- 
covered a  mound  full  of  these  dish-cover  coffins  at  Mu- 
geyer,  which  ruin  has  never,  as  I  have  already  said,  been 
built  upon  subsequently  to  the  Babylonian  period.  "With 
each  skeleton  at  that  locality  was  a  shallow  and  extremely 
delicate  baked-clay  dish  containing  date-stones  ;  and 
another  with  the  bones  of  fowls,  fish,  and  other  remains 
of  food.  The  skidl  lay  on  a  sun-dried  brick,  containing 
some  white  substance,  which  was  in  some  cases  covered 
by  remnants  of  a  tasselled  cushion  of  tapestry.t 

Various  other  forms  of  pottery  of  minor  importance 
were  applied  to  the  purposes  of  biuial  ,  but  they  all 
sink  into  insignificance  when  compared  with  the  glazed 
earthen  coffins,  whose  fragments  occur  in  such  amazing 
abundance  on  the  surface  of  the  mounds  at  Warka,  as 
to  mark  them  as  one  of  the  chief  peculiarities  of  those 

*  The  women  of  the  !M<4cldii  Arabs  at  the  present  day  ornament  their 
hair  and  head-di'esses  with  similar  shells,  derived  from  a  littoral  marine 
deposit  of  very  modem  geological  formation,  occrn'ring  in  the  region  of  the 
marshes. 

t  I  must  refer,  for  farther  information  on  this  subject,  to  Mr  Taylor's  in- 
teresting "Memoir  on  the  Mdgeyer."  See  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  269  et  seq. 


SLIPPER-SHAPED  COFFINS.  203 

remarkable  ruins.  As  civilization  progressed,  they  appear 
to  have  superseded  the  more  rude  descrij)tions  of  burial 
vases,  and  to  have  been  generally  adopted,  not  only  at 
Warka,  but  also  at  Niffiir,  Zlbliyya,  and  other  localities 
throughout  Chaldoea.  The  piles  on  piles  of  these  coffins 
are  self-evident  proofs  of  the  successive  generations  by 
whom  this  method  of  burial  was  practised.  I  will  not 
venture  to  guess  at  the  date  of  their  first  introduction, 
but  they  were  certainly  in  use  at  Warka,  and  that  com- 
monly, when  the  place  was  abandoned  by  the  Parthians, 
whose  curious  coins  occur  upon  the  surface. 

These  remarkable  coffins  are  slipper-shaped,  but  more 
elegant  and  s}^mmetrical  than  that  homely  article.  The 
oval  apertiu'e  by  which  the  body  was  admitted,  is  flattened 
and  furnished  with  a  depressed  ledge  for  the  reception  of 
a  lid,  which  was  cemented  with  lime  mortar.  At  the 
lower  extremity  is  a  semi-circular  hole  to  prevent  the 
bursting  of  the  coffin  by  the  condensed  gases.  The  upper 
surface  of  each  coffin  generally — and  the  lid  sometimes — 
is  covered  with  elevated  ridges,  plain  or  ornamental ; 
forming  square  panels,  each  of  which  contains  a  similar 
small  embossed  figure,  representing  a  warrior  in  close 
short-fitting  tunic  and  long  loose  nether  garments.  He 
stands  with  his  arms  akimlio  and  his  legs  astride  ;  in  his 
belt  is  a  short  sword,  and  on  his  head  an  enormous 
coiffure,  of  very  curious  appearance.  The  whole  costume 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  with  which  we  are 
well  acquainted  on  coins  and  sculptures  of  the  Parthian 
and  Sassanian  periods.  The  head-dress  reminds  me  of 
that  occurring  upon  the  skull  under  the  dish-cover  just 
alluded  to.  The  whole  visible  surface  of  the  coffin  is 
covered  with  a  thick  glazing  of  rich  green  enamel  on  the 
exterior,  and  of  blue  within  the  a})erture,  the  former 
colour  probably  arising  from  chemical  decomposition  and 
long  exposure. 


204 


SLIPPER-SHAPED  COFFINS. 


-ff^\| 


EXTERNAL  ORNAMENTATION. 


205 


The  material  of  which,  the  coffins  are  composed  is  yellow 
clay,  mixed  with  straw,  and  half-baked.     The  ungiazed 


Lid  of  Coffin  (Icngtli  2  feet  2  inchcfO. 


Figure  on  Coffins  (length  6J  inches). 


surface  of  the  interior,  as  well  as  the  bottom,  is  marked 
with   impressions   of   the  reed-matting 
upon  which  it  rested  during  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture. 

Sometimes  the  coffins  are  glazed,  but 
without  figures,  at  others  they  are  per- 
fectly plain.  Upon  one  are  three  figures 
which  differ  considerably  from  the  rest. 
They  are  represented  in  short  dresses,  with 
large  bushy  wigs  confined  in  netting, 
and  carrying  some  article  in  their  hands 
which  resembles  a  square  box.  A  portion 
of  this  coffin  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  one  instance  only  did  I  observe 
two  lids  to  a  coffin.     The  glazed  speci- 
men,"^'  likewise   in    the    Museum,   was 
*  Of  which  a  woodcut  is  given  above. 


Figure  on  Coffin  (length 
7  inches). 


206  EXPOSURE  OF  THE  DEAD. 

broken,  and  lay  within  the  aperture,  protected  by  an  un- 
glazed  one,  puffed  out  in  the  centre  and  pierced  by  a  small 
hole  like  the  crust  of  a  meat  pie. 

The  coffins  generally  are  loosely  surrounded  with 
earth,  and  lie,  without  order,  upon  and  near  each  other. 
Many,  however,  are  built  up  singly,  or  two  together,  in 
brick  vaults  cemented  with  lime.  As  the  same  mortar 
is  used  to  fasten  down  the  lid  of  the  enclosed  coffin,  the 
inference  is  that  the  coffin  was  first  placed  in  the  position 
it  was  destined  to  occupy,  and  then  that  the  body  was 
put  into  it  when  in  situ.  From  the  fragile  nature  and 
weight  of  the  composition,  it  is  improbable  that  the  coffin 
was  carried  to  the  mound  vn\\\  the  dead  inside. 

I  have  observed  that  coffins  were  discovered  at  the 
depth  of  thirty  feet  below  the  surface,  and  that  they 
probably  descend  to  near  the  base  of  the  mound.  This 
depth  and  the  yielding  nature  of  the  soil  are  opposed 
to  the  supposition  of  their  having  been  buried  in  the 
usual  way,  and  seem  rather  to  imply  that  they  have 
gradually  accumidated.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Persia — certainly  the  Sassa- 
nians — exposed  their  dead  like  their  modern  descendants 
the  Parsees  of  India.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  a 
species  of  exposure  was  practised  at  Warka,  the  body 
being  placed  in  a  coffin,  cemented  down,  and  left  to  be 
covered  up  by  the  drifting  sand,  which,  as  previously 
mentioned,  is  roused  by  the  slightest  breath  of  wind.  In 
this  manner  we  can  account,  not  only  for  the  depth  below 
the  siu'face,  but  also  for  the  extremely  small  layer  of  fine 
sandy  earth  which  intervenes  between  the  vertical  rows. 

The  Arabs  have  long  been  attracted  by  the  gold  orna- 
ments which  the  coffins  contain,  and  break  hundreds 
every  year  for  the  purpose  of  rifling  them.  In  searching 
for  this  purpose,  they  drive  their  spears  as  far  as  pos- 
sible into  the  light  soil.     If  the  spear-head   chance   to 


ARABS  SEARCH  FOR  GOLD.  207 

strike  against  any  impediment,  the  wild  fellow  sounds  to 
ascertain  if  it  be  a  coffin  or  a  vault,  and  by  the  vibra- 
tion produced  he  knows  whether  he  has  gained  his  ob- 
ject. The  spear  is  then  thrown  aside,  and  he  begins  to 
work  with  his  arms  and  hands  like  a  mole.  If  an 
obstacle — a  brick  for  instance — present  itself,  recourse  is 
had  to  the  spear  point,  which  acts  the  part  of  lever  and 
pickaxe.  In  this  manner  he  successively  grubs  and  picks 
until  his  perseverance  has  succeeded  in  clearing  away 
the  soil  from  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin.  The  spear 
again  does  its  duty  in  deliberately  breaking  into  the 
tenement  of  the  dead,  and  the  Arab  carefully  turns  over 
the  frail  relics  of  humanity  with  his  dagger,  until  he  secures 
his  spoil.  As  soon  as  this  sacrilegious  process  is  con- 
cluded, he  breaks  a  hole  through  the  bottom  of  the  coffin 
to  ascertain  if  there  be  another  immediately  below,  and 
if  so,  to  repeat  his  former  labours.  By  this  process  the 
whole  surface  of  the  mounds  is  covered  w^ith  innumer- 
able holes  and  broken  pottery,  w^hich  at  first  render  either 
walking  or  riding  a  matter  of  perplexity  and  danger. 

The  object  of  my  second  journey  to  Warka  was 
to  endeavour  to  obtain  a  specimen  of  these  extraor- 
dinary coffins,  in  order  that  it  might  be  forwarded 
to  the  British  IMuseum.  In  this,  however,  I  experi- 
enced much  more  difficulty  than  was  anticipated.  In 
digging  trenches,  I  ascertained  that  those  near  the  sur- 
face were  considerably  weathered,  while  those  below 
were  saturated  with  moisture,  and  frequently  crushed 
by  the  superincumbent  weight.  They  invariably  feU  to 
pieces  in  the  attempt  to  stir  them.  Sometimes  the  con- 
tents were  removed,  and  at  other  times  the  earth,  which 
had  accumulated  inside  through  crevices,  was  wholly 
allowed  to  remain,  or  was  partially  cleared  out ;  pieces  of 
carpet  and  abbas  were  tied  round,  and  poles  placed 
below  them  to  give  support;  but  aU  to  no  purpose.     After 


208  DIFFICULTIES  OF  REMOVING  COFFINS. 

several  days  of  anxious  labour,  and  the  demolition  of 
perhaps  a  hundred  cofiins,  I  almost  despaired  of  success. 

The  Arabs  were  anxious  that  I  should  be  pleased,  and 
were  as  annoyed  as  myself  at  our  fruitless  endeavours. 
At  last  the  good-natured  Gunza  took  hold  of  my  sleeve, 
and  addressed  me  on  behalf  of  his  fellows  : — "  Oh,  Beg ! 
you  take  much  trouble  to  get  one  of  these  pots  of  the 
old  Kaffirs — may  they  be  cursed! — and  have  brought 
with  you  spades  and  shovels  from  a  great  distance  for 
this  purpose.  Our  hands  were  not  made  to  use  such 
implements,  which  are  the  tools  of  the  Fellah,  not  of  the 
Madan;  but  with  the  spear  we  can  do  many  things. 
Give  us  your  permission,  Beg,  and  we  will  follow  our 
own  mode  of  search,  and,  inshallah !  we  shall  soon  be 
able  to  find  plenty  of  pots,  among  which  there  will  cer- 
tainly be  one  strong  and  good  enough  to  carry  away." 
As  there  was  no  doubt  of  their  being  more  adept  with 
their  hands  and  spears  than  the  ordinary  implements  of 
civilized  life,  I  acceded  to  their  request,  and  despatched 
a  party  to  hunt  after  their  own  method.  They  kept 
their  promise,  and  I  soon  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
several  good  coffins  uncovered  in  different  parts  of  the 
ruins.  But  still  there  occurred  the  same  difficulty  of  re- 
moval ;  several  more  being  broken  in  the  vain  attempt. 

At  length  it  occurred  to  me  that,  with  some  strong 
paper,  an  expedient  might  be  adopted  to  strengthen  them. 
As  a  last  resource,  I  determined  to  send  and  endeavour 
to  procure  some  at  Semava,  twenty  miles  distant.  An 
Arab  was  dismissed  with  a  few  shamies'"'  to  make  the 
purchase,  and  on  the  tliird  day  again  made  his  aj^pear- 
ance  with  aU  the  stock  of  strong  paper  which  the  town, 
as  good  luck  would  have  it,  could  provide.  A  coffin 
having  been  selected  on  the  following  afternoon,  wood, 
flour,  and  water  were  brought  up  to  the  mound,  a  fire 

*  The  shdmi  is  an  Arab  coin,  equal  to  about  twentypence  of  our  money. 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REMOVING  COFFINS.  209 

lighted,  and  paste  made  on  the  spot.  The  surface  of  tlie 
coffin  was  then  carefully  cleaned,  inside  and  out,  and 
several  thick  layers  of  paper  applied.  It  was  left  exposed 
all  night,  so  that,  before  morning,  the  paper  had  become 
like  hard  pasteboard.  The  Arabs  were  delighted ;  they 
danced,  laughed,  sang,  and  clapped  their  hands,  ta2:)ped 
the  paper  Avitli  their  knuckles,  and  patronisingly  patted 
my  back.  They  wanted  at  once  to  shoulder  it  and 
be  off,  but  I  deferred  the  removal  until  late  in  the 
afternoon,  in  order  that  the  paper  might  be  thoroughly 
dried.  In  the  interim,  as  much  earth  as  was  deemed 
safe  was  removed  from  below,  and  two  strong  tent- 
poles  placed  beneath.  By  means  of  these  the  coffin  was 
lifted  upon  a  board,  covered  ^ntli  workmen's  abbas,  and 
carefully  secured  vdth.  ropes.  Spears  and  spades  were 
then  made  into  strong  fasces  and  attached  to  the  under 
side  of  the  board,  for  handles  by  which  to  carry  the  bur- 
den to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  It  was  exceedingly 
hea\y,  and  required  a  strong  party  of  Arabs  to  relieve 
each  other.  The  ground  was,  in  many  parts,  exces- 
sively rough  and  difficidt  to  traverse  in  approaching  the 
river,  on  account  of  the  numerous  channels,  so  that  I 
was  in  constant  trepidation  lest  a  trip  or  false  step 
might  destroy  aU  the  fruits  of  our  laboiu\  This  anxiet}' 
on  my  part  was  not  without  cause,  for  the  wild  fellows, 
notwithstandino;  the  weiHit  of  their  burden,  could  not 
be  restrained  from  joining  in  the  dance  and  song,  with 
which  their  comrades  off  duty  enlivened  the  whole  route. 
Their  excitement  had  been  roused  to  the  highest  pitch, 
and  their  gestures  surpassed  anything  they  had  ever  yet 
exhibited  before  me.  The  coffin  was  frequently  in  clan- 
ger when  the  whole  party  at  times  feigned  a  hostile 
charge  against  the  bearers,  and  the  latter,  unal)le  to  re- 
strain their  natural  impetuosity,  wielded  their  spears, 
which  they  insisted  on  cariyiug,  and  yelled  defiance  in 

0 


210  EEMOVING  THE  COFFIN, 

return.  Tlie  more  I  entreated,  the  more  riotous  they 
became,  until  I  discovered  that  the  best  plan  was  to  let 
them  have  their  own  way,  and  wear  themselves  out. 

In  this  manner  we  traversed  the  nine  miles  between 
the  ruins  and  the  river,  and  arrived  within  sight  of  the 
camp,  when  the  excitement  became  greater  than  ever.  The 
women,  in  their  eagerness  to  see  the  unwonted  sight — 
unwonted  indeed,  because  probably  upwards  of  two  thou- 
sand years  had  passed  since  such  a  coffin  had  been  con- 
veyed in  similar  manner — even  forgot  to  hide  their  faces, 
and  came  out  in  a  body  .to  meet  the  procession,  uttering 
their  wild  tahlehl  and  plaintive  wail,  while  they  pretended 
to  throAY  dust  upon  their  hair,  in  imitation  of  the  ceremony 
of  mourning  for  the  dead.  The  men,  under  the  influence 
of  this  additional  impulse,  redoubled  their  exertions, 
until  they  resembled  frantic  demons  rather  than  human 
beings.'"  I  was  not  sorry  when  the  primitive  bier  and 
its  precious  burden  were  safely  deposited  at  our  tents. 
Each  bearer  then  received  some  little  present  for  his 
extra  labour,  and  retired  to  the  sheikh's  tent  to  discuss 
the  great  event  of  the  day.  In  remembrance  of  it,  and 
of  my  stay  among  them,  that  encampment  was  hence- 
forward to  be  kno^vn  by  the  name  of  "  Beit-el-GliyawT," 
"the  Infidel's  House,"  a  somewhat  doubtful  honour,  it 
must  be  confessed,  towards  myself. 

The  papering  process  succeeded  to  the  best  of  my  expec- 
tation, and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  the  three  coffins 
were  safely  secured,  which  are  now  in  the  British  Muf  eum. 

Within  the  coffins  the  skeletons  are  frequently  to  be 
observed,  having  the  arms  bent  across  the  body ;  but 
they  usually  fell  to  pow^ler  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In 
one  instance,  I  noticed  the  remnants  of  a  light-coloured 
garment,  of  fine  textiu-e,  adhering  to  the  bones. 

Many  small  objects  are  associated  with  the  coffins, 
*  See  Frontispiece. 


GOLD  ORNAMENTS. 


211 


either  in  the  inside,  or  around  tliem  in  the  earth  or 
vault.  The  personal  relics  of  the  deceased  consist  of 
gold  and  silver  finger-rings ;  armlets,  bangles  and  toe- 
rings  of  silver,  brass,  and  copper ;  bead-necklaces,  and 
small  cylinders.  Gold  ornaments  are  not  uncommon, 
such  as  ear-rings,  and  small  plates  or  beads  for  fillets,  of 


Gold  Ornaments. 

tasteful  and  elegant  design.  Thin  gold  leaf  sometimes 
appears  to  have  covered  the  face  like  a  veil;  and  one  or 
two  broad  ribbons  of  thin  gold  not  unfrequently  occur 
on  each  side  of  the  head.  Large  pointed  head-dresses, 
Budda  told  me,  had  been  found  and  sold  to  the  peram- 
bulating Jews,  who  visit  the  Madan  periodically  for  the 
purpose  of  purchasing  the  gold.  It  is  seldom  that  these 
ornaments  are  sold  in  their  original  state,  because  the 
Arabs  melt  them  down  for  the  convenience  of  secretins; 
them.  Hence  it  is  that  so  few  are  offered  for  sale  in  the 
bazaars  of  Baghdad — the  great  mart  for  antiques. 

With  the  above  are  articles  of  a  different  description, 
such  as  small  earthen  drinking  vessels  and  lamps,  glass 


Lamps  and  Lachrymatories. 

lachrymatories,  copper  bowls,  hideous  loone  figures  pro- 
bably dolls,  and  a  variety  of  othera 


212 


COINS  AND  TERRA-COTTA  ARTICLES. 


Terra-Cotta  Lamp. 


The  top  of  tlie  coffin  is  often  a  receptacle  for  small 
relics — apparently  the  parting  gifts  of  friends — as  the 

following  list  will  shew: — Seven 
different  forms  of  fragile,  coloured 
glass  bottles,  two  curiously  formed 
yellow  glass  dishes,  a  glazed  terra- 
cotta lamp  (a  constant  accompani- 
ment), four  bone  stilettos,  two 
iron  implements,  the  bones  of  a  small  bird,  fragments  of 
a  bunch  of  flowers,  and  an  ornamental  reed  basket  (the 
plaits  of  the  reeds  being  quite  distinct)  containing  two 
pieces  of  kohl  or  black  paint  for  the  eyehds,  and  a  tassel 
bead.  Judging  from  their  character,  these  articles  appear 
to  have  been  the  property  of  a  female. 

Strewed  in  the  earth  around  the  coffins  are  numerous 
copper  coins,  the  only  articles  which  afford  any  posi- 
tive clue  to  their  age.  These 
are  moulded,  flat  on  one 
side,  and  slightly  rounded 
on  the  other,  the  edges 
having  two  little  projecting 
processes  opposite  to  each 
other.  The  t}^es  are  ex- 
tremely indistinct,  but  no  doubt  is  entertained  of  their 


Parthian  Coins. 


ojf>,/p^^s-*f/rj*^. 


Jar  and  Jugs  from  the  Coffiu  Mounds. 


CLAY  PENATES. 


213 


Steel  and  Flint. 


beins:  Parthian.  Close  to  the  foot  of  each  coffin  are  one 
or  more  large  glazed  water-jugs  and  earthen  drinking 
cups,  of  extremely  artistic  form.  One  of  these,  the  tall 
central  jug  of  the  engraving,  was  foimd  in  a  recess  built 
for  its  reception  in  the  side  wall  of  a  vault,  within  arm's 
length  of  the  coffin.  The  bones  of  a  fowl,  with  flint  ^''  and 
steel,  were  also  frequently  deposited  upon 
the  lid.  The  practice  of  placing  food  and 
water  near  the  body  was  certainly  con- 
nected with  the  superstitions  of  the  period. 
The  same  practice  is,  I  believe,  continued 
among  the  Arabs,  who  conceive  that  these 
articles  are  necessary  to  give  the  spirit  strengih  on  its 
long  journey. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  objects  found  in  the 
same  position  are  small  terra-cotta  figures,  which  were 
probably  household  divi- 
nities. Many  are  un- 
doubtedly Parthian ;  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  reclin- 
ing warrior,  with  a  cup 
C?)  in  his  left  hand,  wear- 
ino;  a  coat -of- mail  or 
padded  tunic  reaching  to 

the     knees,     and     a    helmet  Reclining  Fig^xre  of  PartUianWarnor. 

ornamented  in  front.     The  whole  costume  is  well  repre- 
sented on  many  coins  of  the  Parthian  epoch. 

Several  are  female  figures  in  loose  attire,  exhibiting 
strange  head-dresses,  which,  doubtless,  give  us  some  notion 
of  the  costume  of  the  period.  One  of  these  is  very  re- 
markable ;  it  rises  into  two  tall  conical  peaks,  from  which 
depends  a  veil,  reminding  one  strongly  of  the  EngUsh 

•  Slices  of  flint  and  obsidian,  precisely  like  the  sacrificial  knives  of  the 
ancient  Mexicans,  are  found  upon  the  mounds.  The  former  were  designed 
for  striking  a  light,  but  the  object  of  the  latter  is  not  so  evident. 


214 


CLAY  PENATES. 


ladies'  costume  in  the  time  of  Hemy  IV.     Nude  female 
figures,  probably  representing  the  IMyHtta  or  Venus  of 


Terra-cotta  Figures.    Parthian  5 


the  Assyrians,  were  extremely  common  at  the  Parthian 
period,  having  been  handed  down  from  antiquity.  Simi- 
lar figures  are  universal  throughout  the  East  before  the 
Christian  era.  A  few  figures  bear  traces  of  colour.  The 
accompanying  figures  represent  an  old 
bearded  man  and  an  old  woman  carry- 
ing a  square  basket  or  box  in  her  hand ; 
red  and  black  paint  are  distinctly  recog- 
nisable upon  them. 

Of  all  the  clay  figures,  the  heads,  in  the 
adjoining  woodcut  are  most  interesting. 
They  are  infinitely  superior  to  the  rest  in 
point  of  design  and  execution,  and  mark 
the  rapidly  spreading  influence  of  Greek  art. 
They  possess  all  the  characteristic  features 
and  boldness  of  the  Greek  face,  and  yet  they  can  scarcely 
be  other  than  the  works  of  Babylonian  artists.  The 
hair  is  arranged   in   long  ringlets,  and  the   heads  are 


Clay  Figures  exhibit 
ing  traces  of  paint. 


LIGHT-FINGERED   ARABS. 


215 


Greek  Heads. 


surmounted  by  lofty  head-dresses  of  different  form.  To 
the  same  period  may  be  referred  a  small  broken  tablet, 
representing  a  stui'dy  winged  figure,  with  a  robe  fastened 
by  a  brooch  at  the  right 
shoulder,  but  flying  loose- 
ly, and  leaving  the  body 
naked.  The  head  is  want- 
ing :  the  leo's  with  ank- 
lets  stand  on  small  round- 
ed prominences ;  one  is 
held  in  his  left  hand.  This 
figure  is  probably  a  repre- 
sentation of  Hercules. 

It  would  be  endless  to  give  in  detail  all  the  small 
articles  Avhich  were  discovered  in  connexion  with  the 
slipper  coffins. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  my  Arab  friends  pati- 
ently submitted  to  my  appropriating  the  small  articles 
which  were  revealed  dui'ing  the  researches  among  the 
ruins.  On  the  discovery  of  an  urn  or  coffin,  it  was  with 
the  greatest  difficulty  they  could  be  prevented  from  at 
once  breaking  in  and  stealing  the  valuables,  before  the 
earth  was  sufficiently  removed  from  around  it,  to  admit 
of  my  making  a  careful  examination.  They  would  then 
all  cluster  together,  thrust  themselves  in  my  way,  and 
shew  the  greatest  eagerness  to  seize  a  share  of  the  spoil ; 
it  was  sometimes  almost  impossible  to  move  for  them. 
When  I  drew  any  object  out  of  a  coffin,  a  general 
commotion  took  place,  and  a  variety  of  exclamations 
were  uttered  ;  the  words  "  gold,"  *'  a  cylinder,"  "  silver," 
"  sherbeh,"  "  beads,"  rang  through  the  assembly  like  wild- 
fire, and  it  required  every  possible  manoeuvre  to  keep 
their  hands  out  of  the  sarcophagus.  Old  Budda  gene- 
rally succeeded  in  obtaining  the  best  place,  his  little 
eyes  sparkling  with  avarice,  and  his  long  arms  stretched 


216 


LIGHT-FINGERED  ARABS. 


out,  while  he  volunteered  information  to  those  who  could 
not  see  so  well  as  himself,  his  finger-ends  itching  all  the 
while  to  take  advantage  of  any  opportunity  when  they 
might  intrude  themselves  into  the  proceedings.  It  was 
useless  to  drive  them  away ;  like  Hies  or  v;iltures,  they 
would  return  immediately  to  their  prey. 

It  frequently  happened  that,  no  sooner  was  a  coffin 

discovered,  than  it 
was  rifled  without 


ceremony  in  my 
absence,  and,  of 
course,  no  person 
was  the  offender. 
To  dismiss  a  work- 
man by  way  of  ex- 
ample was  super- 
fluous, because  his 
next  neighbour 
would  repeat  the 
offence  on  the  first 
opportunity.  They 
were  perfectly  in- 
corrigil^le  in  this 
respect. 

A  vaidt  was  once 
discovered  in  a 
trench,  when  a  fear- 
ful hurricane  of 
sand  drove  us  all  from  the  mound ;  it  was  impossible 
to  work,  and  almost  to  breathe.  Fearing  some  of  the 
AralDS  might  return  and  plunder  the  contents,  I  de- 
puted old  Budda  and  two  others  to  remain  and  to  keep 
watch  awhile  behind  the  rest.  On  the  following  morn- 
ing, notwdthstanding  this  precaution,  the  vault  was 
found  to  be  broken  into,  and  the  coffin  rifled.     Beino- 


Coffin  Treuch. 


THE  ORDEAL.  217 

miicli  annoyed,  I  resolved,  if  possible,  to  ascertain  who 
were  the  aggressors.  Open  and  secret  questioning  were 
of  no  avail — aU  strenuously  denied  the  theft — so  another 
plan  was  adopted  to  discover  the  guilty  party. 

It  was  proposed  that  each  man  should  take  an  oath 
upon  the  Koran  that  he  was  innocent  of  the  offence. 
Ovannes,  therefore,  seated  himself  as  judge  on  a  hen- 
coop, and  the  Arabs,  in  their  tribes,  filed  off  before  him, 
kissing,  as  they  passed,  a  French  Dictionary,  which  an- 
swered the  part  of  a  Koran,  and  declaring  that  they 
knew  nothing  of  the  act  committed.  The  whole  of  the 
'Abb^s  and  Khithr  tribes  went  through  the  ceremony 
without  flinching,  but,  when  it  came  to  the  turn  of  the 
Tuweyba,  they  begged  for  an  hour's  consideration,  and, 
at  the  expiration  of  that  time,  asked  to  be  permitted  to 
visit  El-Kliithr  and  consult  the  bones  of  the  holy  Im4m 
on  the  subject.  Finding  this  subterfuge  without  effect, 
at  daybreak  the  following  day,  Azayiz  appeared  with  a 
handfid  of  various  beads  which,  it  is  to  be  charitably 
presumed,  were  the  whole  of  the  stolen  property.  As 
an  act  of  great  lil)erality  on  my  part,  they  were  returned 
to  him,  with  an  injunction  that  he  would  strictly  look 
after  the  honesty  of  his  people.  I  never  overcame  the 
belief  that  Budda  and  his  companions  (unal)le  to  resist 
the  opportunity  of  being  left  alone  on  the  mounds  with 
an  unsearched  coffin  before  them)  were  the  delinquents, 
and  that  his  influence  over  the  tribe  prevented  their 
denouncing  him.  He  was  very  humble  next  day,  and 
often  repeated  his  regrets  that  the  Tuweyba  tribe  had 
so  committed  itself. 

Considering  the  friable  nature  of  the  soil  in  the  coffin 
trenches,  it  is  wonderful  that  no  very  serious  accidents 
took  place  during  the  continuance  of  the  excavations. 
One  mishap,  however,  occurred,  in  consequence  of  the 
proximity  of  an  old  Arab  working,  and  afforded  an  in- 


218  ENDURANCE  OF  PAIN. 

stance  of  Arab  endurance  of  pain,  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  their  wounds  heal.  The  trench  side  gave  way 
and  huried  three  men,  one  of  whom  was  dug  out  with 
his  collar  bone  broken.  The  poor  fellow  walked  back 
to  camp,  where  I  managed  to  set  the  bone.  While  en- 
gaged in  this  occupation  in  the  presence  of  the  Avhole 
assembled  tribe  in  the  sheikh's  tent,  one  of  the  perse- 
cuting dust  squalls  arose,  and  in  a  few  seconds  we  were 
enveloped  in  a  flood  of  dense  sand,  the  light  of  the 
setting  sun  was  completely  shut  out,  and  a  yellow, 
sickly  colour  pervaded  the  atmosphere.  The  force  with 
which  the  particles  of  sand  were  driven  produced  a 
sharp  tingling  of  the  flesh,  and  obliged  the  half-naked 
Araljs  for  once  to  cover  themselves  with  their  abbas,  in 
which  they  sat  crouching  until  the  tent  was  blown 
down  about  our  ears,  and  there  was  a  chance  of  our 
being  either  strangled  or  suffocated.  They  then  all 
sprang  to  their  feet,  and  re- erected  the  tent  under  the 
excitement  of  the  war-cry  of  the  men  and  the  tahlehl  of 
the  women.  The  patient,  during  the  scramble  which 
ensued,  had  the  bone  put  out  of  position,  and  suffered 
great  agony  from  the  roughness  of  his  comrades.  As 
soon  as  the  hurricane  was  over,  it  was  set  a  second 
time  and  bandaged  up,  but  in  the  night  it  got  once 
mere  disconnected.  He,  however,  insisted  on  returning 
to  his  family  across  the  Euphrates,  notwithstanding 
all  my  persuasion.  On  receipt  of  a  week's  wages,  he 
set  out  on  foot  upon  a  two  days'  journey!  The  endur- 
ance of  an  Arab  is  astonishing.  Within  a  month  after 
the  occurrence  of  the  accident,  the  man  presented  him- 
self again  and  demanded  to  be  employed  once  more, 
swinoing  his  arm  round  to  shew  that  it  was  healed. 
His  request  was  granted  for  light  work,  and  he  after- 
wards obtained  me  several  valuable  relics. 

In  this  place  I  may  enumerate  the  few  objects  which 


EAELIEST  RELICS.  219 

undoubtedly  belong  to  the  earliest  type  of  funereal  re- 
mains : — 

1.  The  edifice  of  terra-cotta  cones,  of  which  I  have 
already  given  an  account  (p.  187);  and  the  horns  of  the 
same  substance,  with  the  dedication  of  Belus,  as  ascer- 
tained by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 

2.  Several  dark  brown  tablets  or  syllabaria  of  unbaked 
clay,  measuring  nine  inches  by  seven,  and  inscribed  mth 
columns  of  minute  cuneiform  characters  ; — one  of  which 
contains  the  names  of  various  trees. 

3.  Terra-cotta  figures  of  Venus  ;  an  old  man  with 
flowing  beard,  wearing  a  skull-cap  and  long  robe,  encircled 

round  the  waist  by  a  belt,  his 
hands  clasped  in  front  in  the 
Oriental  attitude  of  res23ect  ; 
and  a  younger  personage,  hold- 
ing some  unknown  object,  pro- 
bably a  mace,  in  the  hands. 
These  figures  are  infinitely  su- 
perior to  those  of  the  later 
periods.    Althoup^h  stiff  in  out- 

Babyloniaii  Figures.  t •  i 

line,  they  are  very  correctly 
modelled,  and  may  be  known  at  once  by  the  dark  green 
clay  of  which  they  are  composed. 

4.  Near  two  well-built  brick  vaults,  cemented  with 
plaster,  at  the  base  of  a  small  mound  ^'^  south-east  of  the 
Buwariyya,  was  dug  up  a  rude  jar,  containing  a  thin  silver 
plate,  which  was  folded  in  linen.  It  measures  two  inches 
long  by  one  inch  wide,  and  is  embossed  with  a  beautiful 
female  figaure.  The  hands  are  raised  in  an  attitude  of 
adoration,  and  the  hair  hangs  loosely  behind.  The  attitude 
and  costume  recall  to  mind  the  extraordinary  figiu'es  on 
the  rock  sculptures  of  Mai  Amii'  plain,  in  the  Bakhtiyari 
Mountains  in  Persia. 

*  At  G  on  the  Plan. 


220  EARLIEST  RELICS. 

All  the  al)ove  objects  occur  at  the  outskirts  of  the  great 
cofliii  iiKJUiids,  where,  if  accumulated  in  the  way  I  have 
been  led  to  suppose,  it  is  natural  we  should  find  the  pri- 
mitive rehcs.  If  it  were  possible  to  penetrate  through 
the  vast  piles  of  more  recent  deposits,  we  should  doubt- 
less obtain  some  very  valuable  information  regarding  the 
veiy  earliest  modes  of  buiial. 


CHAPTEE   XIX. 

Bank-notes  of  Babylon — Relics  Injured  by  Fire — A  Fruitful  Mound — 
Chamber  containing  Arcliitectural  Ornaments — Origin  of  the  Sara- 
cenic Style — Clay  Tablets  witli  Seal  Impressions  and  Greek  Names — 
Contimiance  of  Cuneiform  until  B.C.  200 — Himyaric  Tomb-stone — 
Conical  Mounds — Style  for  Writing  Cuneiform — The  Shat-el-NQ — 
General  Results  of  the  Excavations  at  Warka — Probable  Relics  still 
Buried  there. 

While  rambling  over  the  mounds  one  day,  I  acciden- 
tally observed  two  bricks  projecting  through  the  soil  of 
the  wall  or  terrace  which  constitutes  the  edge  of  the  great 
platform  on  the  east  of  the  Buwariyya.'"'  Thinking,  from 
their  vitrified  aspect,  that  they  were  likely  to  l^ear  cunei- 
form legends,  I  extracted  them  from  the  earth,  and,  in  doing 
so,  exposed  two  small  taljlets  of  unbaked  clay,  covered  on 
both  sides  with  minute  characters.  On  searching  further, 
others  were  discovered,  and  eventually  there  were  obtained 
forty,  more  or  less  perfect,  varying  from  two  to  four-and- 
a-half  inches  in  length,  by  one  to  three  inches  in  breadth. 
Many  others  were  either  irrevocably  damaged  by  weather, 
or  unavoidably  broken  in  extraction  from  the  tenacious 
clay  in  which  they  were  disposed  in  rows  and  imbedded 
upon  a  brick  pavement.  They  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  but  it  is  feared  that  the  nitrous  earth  of  which 
they  are  composed  \\dll  cause  them  to  decay  rapidly  on 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 

Sir  Henry  Eawlinson  reported   concerning  them : — 

•  At  0  on  the  Plan. 


222  BANK-NOTES  OF  BABYLON. 

"  tliat  they  are  certainly  official  documents  issued  by  order 
of  the  king,  attested  or  indorsed  by  the  principal  officers 
of  state,  and  referring  to  specific  amounts  in  weight  of 
gold  or  silver.  He  could  not  help  suspecting  that  the 
Babylonian  kings,  in  an  age  when  coined  money  was 
unknown,  used  these  pieces  of  baked  clay  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  a  circulating  medium.  The  smaller  cakes,  he 
thought,  corresponded  to  the  notes  of  hand  of  the  present 
day,  the  tenor  of  the  legend  being  apparently  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  liability  by  private  parties  for  certain  amounts 
of  gold  and  silver.  The  more  formal  documents,  however, 
seemed  to  be  notes  issued  by  the  Government,  for  the 
convenience  of  circulation,  representing  a  certain  value, 
which  was  always  expressed  in  measures  of  weight,  of 
gold  or  silver,  and  redeemable  on  presentation  at  the 
Eoyal  Treasury.  He  had  chiefly  examined  them  vrith  the 
view  to  historical  discovery,  and  had  succeeded  in  finding 
the  names  of  Nabopollassar,  Nabokodrossor,  Nabonidus, 
Cyrus,  and  Cambyses  (ranging  from  626  to  522  B.C.)  ;  the 
precise  day  of  issue  in  such  a  month  of  such  a  year  of 
the  king's  reign  being  in  each  instance  attached  to  the 
document."^' 

These  tablets  were,  in  point  of  fact,  the  equivalents  of 
our  own  bank-notes,  and  prove  that  a  system  of  artificial 
currency  prevailed  in  Babylonia,  and  also  in  Persia,  at 
an  unprecedented  early  age — centuries  before  the  intro- 
duction of  paper  or  printing  !  They  were,  undoubtedly, 
deposited  in  the  position  where  they  were  discovered, 
about  the  commencement  of  the  Achsemenian  period. 

On  removing  the  rubbish  from  the  brick  pavement,  it 
appeared  that  it  formed  a  terrace  thirty-two  feet  long 
and  four  feet  wide.  Only  one  brick  was  inscribed,  and 
that  had  evidently  been  taken  from  some  edifice  built  by 
Urukh,  most  probably  from  the  Buwariyya.  Behind  was 
•  See  "The  Athenseum"  for  March  16, 1851. 


ARTICLES  DAMAGED  BY  FIRE.  223 

the  base  of  a  wall  of  unbaked  bricks  ten  or  twelve  feet 
thick  ;  the  whole  being  covered  with  two  feet  of  rubbish 
and  charcoal.  Upon  the  terrace  were  several  highly- 
interesting  articles  damaged  by  fire,  among  them  may 
be  mentioned  : — 

1.  Fragment  of  an  alabaster  cone,  apparently  portion 
of  a  grotesque  head  for  a  mace  or  staff.  It  is  engraved 
^vith  scrolls,  and  has  upon  it  a  few  Assyrian  characters. 

2.  Part  of  the  hinge  and  valve  of  a  bivalve  shell  (Tri- 
dacna  squamosa).  On  the  exterior  are  delicately  traced 
the  heads,  necks,  and  fore  legs  of  two  horses  drawing  a 
chariot,  and  covered  with  trappings  and  armour  C?).  The 
reins  are  fastened  to  semicircular  processes  behind  the 
ears,  like  those  on  the  sculptures  of  Sennacherib  from 
Nineveh.  Full-blown  and  budding  flowers  of  the  lotus 
are  introduced  on  every  available  space,  extending  over 
the  hinge  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  shell,  which  is  carved 
with  an  ornamental  basket  filled  with  the  same  flowers.'"" 

3.  A  carved  ivory  panel,  four  inches  long,  in  a  state 
of  rapid  decomposition. 

4.  Two  large  mushroom-shaped  pieces  of  baked  clay, 
covered  on  their  flat  tops  and  stems  with  cuneiform 
records. 

5.  A  brick  with  stamp  in  relief  of  a  circular-topped 
altar  on  a  pedestal,  surmounted  by  a  seven- 
rayed  sun. 

Beyond  the  spot  where  the  tablets  and  the 
above  articles  occurred,  I  discovered  indica- 
tions of  another  method  of  burial.  My  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  two  bricks  resting  angle- 
wise  against  two  others  placed  horizontally,  s'^^'p^"  bricks. 
Below  the   shelter  so  formed  were  three  more  tablets, 

*  A  woodcut  of  this  shell  is  given  at  p.  563  of  Mr  Layartl's  "Nineveh 
and  Babylon,"  where  also  the  author  alludes  to  a  similar  engraved  shell 
from  an  Etruscan  tomb  in  the  British  Museum. 


224  INSCRIPTIONS  OF  CAMBYSES. 

lying  on  a  huge  brick,  seventeen  inches  square,  vnth  a 
hole  through  its  centre.  It  covered  a  well-built  vault, 
measuring  thirteen  inches  by  ten  inches  square,  and 
twenty-one  inches  in  depth,  which  was  filled  with  earth 
and  the  fragments  of  two  large  sepulchral  vases,  with- 
out any  traces  of  their  original  contents.  At  the  left 
corner  of  the  vault,  towards  the  edge  of  the  pavement, 
was  a  small  square  hole  in  which  lay  a  broken  dish  or 
jar.  Behind  the  four  bricks  on  the  surface  of  the-  vault, 
was  a  broken  vase,  containing  reed  ashes  and  burned 
bones  reduced  to  small  lumps,  and  crumbling  to  powder. 

At  a  short  distance  from  this  first  vault  was  a  second, 
in  every  important  respect  reseml^ling  the  other.  Within 
the  small  hole  at  the  angle  were  broken  pottery,  burned 
reeds,  date-stones,  and  part  of  a  lamb's  jaw. 

From  subsequent  discoveries  at  Sinkara,  I  conclude 
that  the  bones  of  the  dead  were,  in  the  above  cases,  de- 
posited in  vases  and  placed  in  the  vaults,  after  which 
the  private  records  and  property  of  the  deceased  were 
arrano'ed  over  them,  and  the  whole  submitted  to  the 
flames. 

In  a  neighbouring  terrace,  two  similar  vaults  to  those 
described  were  discovered.  This  terrace  measured  forty 
feet  long  by  four  feet  wide,  and  was  paved  with  bricks 
inscribed  in  slightly  relieved  cuneiform  characters  of 
Cambyses  the  brother  of  Cyrus,  a  personage  of  whom 
we  possess  no  historical  notice  whatever.'"'  A  few  unim- 
portant articles  lay  on  the  surface  of  the  pavement. 


*  In  a  short  notice  of  my  discoveries,  at  p.  377  of  "  Xineveh  and  its 
Palaces,"  I  observe  the  following  passage  :  "  At  one  place,  Senkereh,  he  had 
come  on  a  pavement,  extending  from  half-an-acre  to  an  acre,  entirely 
covered  with  writing,  which  was  engraved  upon  baked  tiles,"  &c.  As  the 
unimportant  pavement  described  in  the  text  is  the  only  one  I  was  so  fortu- 
nate to  discover,  either  at  Sinkara  or  Warka,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how 
such  an  error  should  have  crept  into  the  passage  quoted.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that,  in  a  work  intended  to  be  a  resume  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 


I'l   H|l|!|||||||!h: 

ll'l 


liPiji 


-^   ^     >^      -,    -^    i^  T^>  I 


ARCHITECTURAL  ORNAMENTS.  225 

The  locality  at  AVarka,  which  furnished  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  fruits  of  my  researches,  was 
a  small  detached  mound/''  forty  feet  high,  situated  about 
half-a-mile  south-east  of  the  Buwariyya.  One  of  my 
overseers  picked  up  from  its  summit  a  few  fragments  of 
ornamental  plaster,  which  induced  me  to  make  exca- 
vations. I  was  soon  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  a 
chamber,  measuring  forty  feet  long  and  twenty-eight 
feet  wide,  the  mud  walls  of  which  stood  only  four  feet 
high,  and  had  been  covered  with  coloured  plaster.  It 
was  a  perfect  museum  of  architectural  scraps,  of  a  highly 
instructive  and  curious  character.  The  unbaked  brick 
floor  was  literally  piled  with  broken  columns,  capitals, 
cornices,  and  innumerable  relics  of  rich  internal  decora- 
tion, which  exhibited  undoubted  symptoms  of  Greek 
and  Eoman  influence  on  Oriental  taste.  The  smaller 
objects  were  wholly  plaster;  but  the  larger  consisted  of 
moulded  bricks,  thinly  coated  with  white  plaster ;  many 
of  them  were  fantastically  coloured.  One  large  frag- 
ment of  cornice  bore,  among  other  devices,  a  spirited 
crouching  griffin,  which,  at  first  sight,  reminded  me  of 
the  similar  figures  sculptured  on  a  frieze  in  an  inner 
chamber  at  the  remarkable  ruins  of  Al  Hadhr,  near 
Mosul.t  This  emblem  was  accompanied  by  the  well- 
discovery,  greater  care  had  not  been  taken  to  prevent  the  insertion  of  this 
and  many  more  grievous  errors. 

Cuneiform  inscriptions  in  relief  are  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in 
Babylonia.  Besides  the  instance  above  mentioned,  Mr  Taylor  discovered 
this  variety  of  legend  on  small  bricks  of  very  early  date  from  the  coflSn 
mounds  of  Mugeyer.  I  afterwards  exhumed  bricks  with  a  Pehlevi  inscrip- 
tion in  relief  from  the  mounds  of  Kh^n-I-Kydya  near  Bdghdad,  and  at 
Jidr  in  central  Chaldsea.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  style  was  re-intro- 
duced into  Mesopotamia  by  Cambyses  on  returning  from  his  conquest  of 
Egypt,  where  relief  inscriptions  commonly  occur. 

*  At  G  on  the  plan.  This  mound  yielded  two  of  the  three  coffins  in  the 
British  Museum. 

t  See  a  sketch  of  this  frieze,  accompanying  Mr  Aiusworth's  Memoir  in 
the  "  Journal  of  the  Hoyal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  xu 

P 


226  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  INFLUENCE. 

kno\vn  Greek  echinus  moulding ;  but  the  cornice  was  pur- 
posely destroyed  by  some  strange  Arabs,  who  visited  the 
mounds  between  the  intervals  of  excavation. 

Three  of  the  capitals  are  Ionic;  but  the  proportions 
of  the  volutes  and  other  members  are  peculiar.  A 
fourth  descri];)tion  of  small  capital  has  peculiarities  of  its 
own,  suggestive  of  the  later  Byzantine  style.  A  large 
and  elegant  leaf  rises  from  the  necking,  and  bends  under 
each  corner  of  the  abacus.  Springing  from  behind  a 
smaller  curled  leaf  in  the  centre  is  the  bust  of  a  human 
figure,  wearing  the  same  preposterous  head-dress  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  slipper  coffins  and  Parthian  coins. 

No  columns  were  discovered  to  correspond  with  the 
larger  capitals ;  but  the  walls  were  liberally  adorned 
with  small  Ionic  half-columns,  with  half-smooth,  half- 
fluted  shafts,  which  were  highly  coloured.  The  lower  and 
smooth  surfaces  were  diagonally  striped  with  red,  green, 
yellow,  and  black ;  the  flutes  being  painted  black,  red, 
and  yellow  alternately,  while  the  level  ridges  between 
them  are  left  white.  In  some  cases  the  flutes  were 
quartered  with  the  same  colours. 

Amono;  the  debris  of  smaller  articles  were  bases  of 
columns, — friezes,  with  bunches  of  grapes  alternating 
with  leaves, — gradines,  resembling  those  on  the  castles  of 
the  Nineveh  bas-reliefs,  but  ornamented  at  the  base  with 
a  conspicuous  six-rayed  star  in  a  circle, — fragments  of 
open  screen-work,  with  complicated  geometric  designs  of 
difl'erent  patterns  on  the  opposite  sides  (these  are  very 
peculiar,  and  difler  materially  from  the  arabesqiie), — and 
flakes  of  painted  plaster  from  the  waUs,  with  fragments 
of  small  statuettes,  coloured,  and  sometimes  gilded. 
Scratched  upon  the  edge  of  one  object  were  the  cha- 
racters ^  I  ^^  QJ  which  approach  nearer  to  the  Him- 
yaric  character  than  any  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

With  regard  to  the  age  of  this  building,  so  elaborately 


ORIGIN  OF  SARACENIC  ARCHITECTURE.  227 

ornamentecl,  I  was  for  some  time  in  doubt.  The  enor- 
mous head-dress  of  the  capital,  being  equally  characteristic 
of  both  the  Parthian  and  Sassanian  periods,  affords  no 
evidence  on  the  subject;  but,  as  the  ruins  abound  with 
coins  of  the  former  dynasty,  while  none  of  the  latter 
have  been  found,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
the  edifice  is  rather  Parthian  than  Sassanian;  and, 
therefore,  on  mature  consideration,  I  assume  that  it  dates 
about  the  Christian  era.  AVhile  the  Koman  griffin,  and 
the  incongruities  with  pure  Greek  architecture  observ- 
able in  the  capitals,  are  evidences  of  a  past  age  and  style, 
— the  complicated  design  of  the  screen-work,  with  its 
geometric  curves  and  tracery,  seems  to  shadow  forth  the 
beauty  and  richness  of  a  style  which  afterwards  followed 
the  tide  of  Mohammedan  conquest  to  the  remotest  corners 
of  the  known  world. 

It  has  long  been  a  disputed  question  whence  originated 
the  germs  of  Saracenic  architecture;  but  the  prevalent 
opinion  is  that  the  Moslems,  having  no  style  of  their 
own,  adopted  those  which  they  found  practised  in  the 
countries  whither  they  carried  their  conquests,  more 
especially  the  Byzantine.  It  is,  nevertheless,  remarkable, 
that  the  same  uniformity  in  richly-wrought  tracery  and 
geometric  ornamentation  prevails  from  India  to  Spain  in 
Saracenic  structures,  w^liich  could  only  have  arisen  from 
a  central  point.  We  know  that  in  the  days  of  Harunu- 
'r-Reshld  the  city  of  Baghdad,  far  removed  from  the 
influence  of  Byzantine  art,  had  attained  a  high  pitch  of 
civilization  and  splendour,  and  that  her  public  edifices, 
within  little  more  than  a  century  after  the  rise  of  Islamism, 
were  adorned  with  a  richness  and  an  attention  to  minute 
Saracenic  details,  which  could  scarcely  have  arrived  at 
perfection  in  so  short  a  period.  We  know,  too,  that 
Kiifa,  at  the  commencement  of  Mohammedan  dominion, 
was  equally  celebrated  for  its  architectural  beauties. 


228    THE  PARTHIANS  ORIGINATE  THE  SARACENIC  STYLE. 

May  we  not  suppose  that  the  peculiarities  of  Sara- 
cenic architecture  are  clue  to  a  much  earlier  period,  and 
that  they  originated  with  the  Parthians,  who  succeeded 
the  Greeks  in  the  possession  of  Mesopotamia  ?  Of  this 
race  we  have,  unfortunately,  scarcely  any  memorials  left.'*' 
They  are  described,  in  their  wars  with  the  Romans,  as 
barbarians,  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  horsemanship 
and  shooting  with  the  arrow,  and  for  the  richness  of 
their  armour.  Of  their  arts  we  know  nothing;  but 
surely  they  could  not  have  been  without  some  apprecia- 
tion of  the  beautiful,  inhabiting,  as  they  did,  the  cities 
and  fortresses  adorned  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  with 
which  great  nations  they  passed  five  hundred  years  in 
conflict.  It  may  be  that  the  Parthians  were  the  in- 
ventors of  the  Saracenic  style,  but  that  the  Sassanians — 
their  rivals  and  successors  in  power — suppressed  the 
influence  which  they  had  exercised,  and  which  again 
shewed  itself,  after  the  Mahommedan  conquest  of  those 
countries,  in  the  application  of  Parthian  ornament  to 
Moslem  buildings.  This  may  possibly  be  esteemed  a 
far-fetched  hypothesis;  but  I  can  see  no  other  mode  of 
accountino;  for  the  advanced  state  of  the  arts  under  the 
KJialif  Hiirunu-'r-Reshid,  so  entirely  diff'erent  from  that 
practised  under  the  Sassanians.  At  any  rate,  we  have  at 
Warka  an  edifice,  mth  an  approximation  to  Byzantine 
and  Saracenic  forms,  due  to  a  period  long  anterior  to 
their  introduction  elsewhere,  which  edifice  was,  I  firmly 
believe,  erected  during  the  Parthian  ascendency. 

That  it  was  Parthian,  I,  moreover,  infer  from  the  dis- 
covery of  a  slipper-cofiin,  and  the  usual  embossed  figures 
with  the  preposterous  head-gear,  at  the  depth  of  six  feet 
below  the  floor,  within  the  chamber.     On  digging  deeply 

•  It  is  true  that  the  legends  on  Parthian  coins  ai-e  written  in  Greek, 
but  we  know  little  further  concerning  them,  or  of  their  own  written 
language. 


SEALED  TABLETS  OF  THE  GREEK  PERIOD.  229 

into  the  mound,  for  the  piu'pose  of  ascertaining  if  it,  like 
the  great  platform,  were  composed  of  coffins,  it  proved 
to  be  constructed  of  solid  earth,  around  and  upon  which 
were  coffins  ;  those  on  the  summit  not  extending  below 
the  depth  of  a  few  feet.'"'  The  chamber  was  probably  a 
tomb  erected  over  the  coffin.  There  were  apparently 
other  chambers  in  the  same  vicinity  which  contained 
similar  relics,  but  I  had  no  opportunity  of  excavating 
among  them. 

Within  twenty  paces  of  the  above  chamber,  and  three 
feet  below  its  level,  was  made  one  of  the  most  curious,  if 
not  the  most  valuable,  discoveries  at  Warka.  In  several 
cases,  it  was  noticed  that  clay  tablets,  with  cuneiform  re- 
cords, were  associated  with  the  ashes  of  burnt  wood  ;  I 
therefore  paid  particular  attention  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  composing  the  mounds.  While  riding  up  to  the 
workmen  engaged  at  the  Partliian  edifice,  my  horse's 
feet  turned  up  a  quantity  of  black  earth,  which  induced 
me  to  dismount,  and  examine  it  more  closely.  My 
trouble  was  repaid  by  the  discovery  of  a  fragment  of 
baked  clay  tablet.  A  small  party  of  Arabs  were  directed 
to  the  spot,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  their  la- 
bours were  rewarded  by  finding,  close  under  the  surface, 
eight  tablets  of  light-coloured  clay.  They  were  lying  on 
decayed  straw  matting,  which  was  imbedded  in  bitumen, 
and  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  charred  date-wood  and 
ashes.  They  difier  from  any  hitherto  discovered,  in  being 
fully  an  inch  in  tliickness,  and  in  having  round  their 
broad  edges  the  impressions  of  seals,  above  each  of  Avhich 
are  the  characters,  ir{f  ,^  "the  seal  of;"  and  below,  the 
name  of  the  party  to  the  deed.  Many  are  extremely 
beautiful,  and  shew  the  perfection  attained  in  the  art  of 
gem  engraving,  in  Babylonia,  at  that  early  period.     It 

*  Two  of  the  coffins  in  the  British  Museum  were  dug  up  from  this 
mound,  where  they  proved  to  be  in  better  condition  than  elsewhera 


230  SEALED  TABLETS. 

is  true  that  we  possess  numberless  cylinders  with  figures 
of  a  much  more  ancient  date,  but  they  are  of  ruder  work- 
manship, and  of  a  totally  different  character — by  no 
means  to  be  compared  with  the  impressions  upon  the 
tablets,  which  evince  a  great  advance  in  art,  assigning 
them  to  a  later  period.  The  inscriptions,  which  cover 
both  sides  of  the  tablets,  are  so  minute  and  delicate,  as  to 
require  the  aid  of  a  microscope  to  decipher  them  with 
precision. 

These  tablets  and  seal  impressions  are  so  curious  and 
interesting,  that  a  detailed  account  of  them  may  prove 
acceptable  :'"* — 

Tablet  No.  1. — Twelve  oval  seals,  some  elongated  and 
pointed.  The  central  ones  at  top  and  bottom  are  tho 
largest  and  most  important.  One  of  these  is  an  indis- 
tinct representation  of  the  winged  deity — the  Hormuzd  of 
the  Persian  sculptures, — in  front  of  whom  is  a  well- 
defined  isosceles  triangle,  precisely  resembling  the  stamp 
upon  the  bricks  at  Wuswas,  and  at  the  other  larger  but 
imexplored  ruin  at  Warka.t  On  the  same  edge  is  an  im- 
pression of  a  fine  Socrates-Uke  head.  The  large  central 
seal  on  the  opposite  edge  is  a  very  beautiful  face,  with 
Greek  expression,  beardless,  and  resembling  the  profile  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Next  to  this  impression  is  one  of 
a  male  and  female  figure  conversing  at  the  base  of  a 
graceful  voluted  capital.  Another  exhibits  a  Greek  head, 
with  helmet  and  plume.  The  other  impressions  are  very 
indistinct.     Size,  four  and  a-half  inches  by  four  inches. 

Tablet  No.  2  has  one  corner  broken  oft'.  It  originally 
had  twenty  or  twenty-one  impressions,  among  which  are 
several  sphynxes.      One  is  exceedingly  spirited,  with  a 

*  I  am  sorry  to  observe  that,  since  their  arrival  in  England,  the  exuda- 
tion of  saline  efflorescences  has  much  damaged  these  remarkable  objects, 
and  there  seems  every  prospect  of  their  being  completely  obliterated,  un- 
less means  are  discovered  to  preserve  them. 

t  At  B  and  C  of  the  General  Plan. 


SEALED  TABLETS.  231 

four-tiirretted  crown  surmounting  the  head.  Several  others 
are  damaged.  Size,  four-and-a-half  inches  by  three-and- 
a-half  inches. 

Tablet  No.  3  bears  eighteen  impressions,  some  of  which 
are  remarkably  beautiful,  in  excellent  preservation,  and 
highly  spirited.  They  comprise : — 1.  Aroaring  lion — moon 
and  star.  2.  A  wild  ass  trotting — crescent  above.  3. 
Winged  Sagittarius — crescent  in  front.  4.  AVinged  griffin 
with  a  single  horn,  the  profile  resembling  that  on  the  rock 
tombs  at  Persepolis.  5.  A  horse.  6.  A  winged  griffin 
and  crescent.  7.  Nude  figiu^e.  8.  Goat — crescent  above, 
star  in  front.  9.  AVino-ed  bull  and  crescent — triangle 
below.  10.  Human-headed  bull.  11.  Dressed  figure. 
12.  Winoed  human-headed  animal.  13.  Lion  holding 
crescent — star  above.  1 4.  Fish-ood,  1 5.  Human  fio;ure. 
16.  Dog — triangle  above.  The  other  impressions  are 
less  distinct.  Size,  four-and-a-half  inches  by  four 
inches. 

Tablet  No.  4  has  only  a  few  impressions  reniaining  dis- 
tinct : — 1 .  is  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  of  the  whole 
series.  It  represents  the  fish-god  Ovannes  C?)  with  goat's 
head  and  fore-legs,  and  fish-body  and  tail,  in  front  is  a 
star — behind  hovers  an  eagle  witli  outstretched  wings, 
probably  intended  for  Hormuzd.'""  2.  Two  figures,  repre- 
sentino;  the  Dioscuri  or  twins.  3.  Human-headed  wiufred 
bull.  4.  Human  figure.  5.  Dog.  (1)  6.  Winged  uni- 
corn. 

Tablet  No.  5.  The  only  impression  very  distinct  is  that 
of  a  Babylonian  figure  in  profile,  in  a  long  robe,  with  a 
staff  in  one  hand. 

The  impressions  on  the  three  remaining .  tablets  are 
more  or  less  damaged  by  the  efflorescence  of  nitrous  and 
other  salts,  which  is  contained  in  the  clay  composing 

*  The  cuneiform  signature  beneath  this  impression  reads  Savastana 
equivalent  to  the  Greek  le^aaros  and  Latin  Augustus. 


232        CUNEIFORM  TABLETS  OP  THE  GREEK  PERIOD. 

these,  aud  in  fact  all  articles  of  similar  description  from 
Warka. 

In  examining  these  tablets  there  is  one  point  which 
cannot  fail  to  be  remarked — the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  zodiacal  signs.  They  seem  to  imply 
some  connexion  with  Chaldsean  worship,  and  this  impres- 
sion is  to  a  certain  extent  confirmed  by  Sir  Henry 
Eawlinson's  inspection  of  the  inscriptions  upon  the  tablets. 
He  observes  that  the  matter  relates  entirely  to  the  domes- 
tic economy  of  the  temples.  The  most  extraordinary 
circumstance,  however,  connected  with  them  is  the 
recognition  of  Greek  names,  in  Babylonian  characters, 
beneath  many  of  the  seals,  and  the  dates  in  various  years 
of  the  reigns  of  Seleucus  and  Antiochus  the  Great  upon 
the  subject  matter  of  the  records.  They  are  therefore  the 
latest  documents  of  the  cuneiform  period  extant,  and 
afford  undoubted  proof  that  cuneiform  writing  was  still 
in  current  use  as  late  as  about  B.C.  200.  Previous  to 
this  discovery  the  most  recent  records  of  the  style  with 
which  we  were  acquainted  were  the  Persian  inscriptions 
of  Artaxerxes  Ochus  on  the  northern  face  of  the  plat- 
form and  on  the  western  staircase  at  Persepolis,  and  that 
upon  the  porphyry  vase,'""  preserved  in  the  treasmy  of 
St  Mark's  at  Venice,  and  ascribed  to  the  same  monarch, 
about  350  B.C. 

This  discovery  is  the  more  important  because  it  raises 
a  hope  that  some  cuneiform  records  of  the  intervening  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  between  Artaxerxes  Ochus  and 

*  It  has  been  inferred  from  the  orthographical  corruption  of  the  king's 
name  in  this  instance,  that  the  language  had  lost  its  purity  towards  the 
close  of  the  Achsemenian  period,  aud  therefore  that  the  inscription  upon 
the  vase  must  be  that  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus.  It  is  not,  however,  improbable 
that  the  Artaxerxes  in  question  is  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  as,  during  my 
excavations  at  Susa,  inscriptions  of  this  king  were  discovered,  exhibiting 
similar  errors  in  grammatical  construction,  and  implying  au  earlier  decline 
in  the  Persic  tongue. 


HIMYARIC  TOMB-STONE. 


233 


Antiochus  the  Great  may  yet  cast  up,  and  that  an  era 
so  prolific  in  great  events  may  prove  to  have  possessed 
its  Babylonian  as  well  as  its  Greek  historians.  What 
valuable  information  might  we  not  derive  from  a  cunei- 
form memorial  of  Alexander's  campaigns,  or  from  a 
cuneiform  record  accompanied  with  its  equivalent  in 
Greek,  which  might  set  at  rest  the  prevailing  doubts 
concerning  the  true  interpretation  of  the  arrow-headed 
character !  Warka  has  already  yielded  many  interesting 
and  valuable  treasures  from  its  mounds,  and  may  yet 
furnish  the  above  desideratum.  With  the  exception  of 
Susa,  I  know  of  no  ruins  more  likely  to  do  so. 

At  the  foot  of  the  mound  where  the  plaster  ornaments 
and  Seleucide  tablets  occurred,  my  servant  was  one  day 
giving  some  instructions  to  the  workmen,  when  the  ground 
under  his  horse's  feet  suddenly  gave  way,  and  precipitated 
them  into  a  vaulted  tomb  without  coffin  or  other  relics. 
It  measured  seven-and-a-half  feet  long,  and  four  feet  wide, 
and  had  been  already  plundered 
by  the  Arabs.  At  one  extremity 
was  an  entrance  two  feet  wide, 
partially  closed  by  a  rough  lime- 
stone slab,  measuring  two  feet 
by  one  foot  and-a-half  and  four 
inches  thick.  The  slab  was 
found  standing  on  end,  with  the 
accompanying  imperfect  Him- 
yaric  inscription,  facing  inwards, 
and  recordino;  the  death  of  Hanat- 
asar,  son  of  Esau,  son  of  Hanat- 
asar.  Who  this  person  was,  or 
the  date  at  which  this  grave- 
stone was  erected  to  his  memory,  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  say. 

The  record  is,  however,  of  considerable  value  and  in- 


^ 


DrSXhYl) 

o 


Himyaric  tomb-stone. 


234  CONICAL  MOUNDS  AT  WAEKA. 

terest,  iiiasmucli  as  it  is  the  first  inscription  of  the  kind 
which  has  yet  occurred  in  Meso^^otamia,  and  tends  to 
shew  a  connexion  with  southern  Arabia,  where  the  Him- 
yaric  language  prevailed  at  an  unknown  early  date,  before 
the  introduction  of  Kiific  and  modern  Arabic.  The 
Himyaric  language  is  supposed  to  be  of  Ethiopic  deriva- 
tion, and  a  relic  of  its  existence  in  this  region  is  interesting 
as  connected  with  the  Hamitic  mio;ration  and  origin  of 
the  ancient  Chaldees,  to  which  allusion  has  been  pre- 
viously made  in  these  pages/"' 

In  addition  to  the  mounds  and  ruins  thus  far  described, 
there  is  yet  another  class  of  remains  which  is  deserving 
of  notice,  but  concernino-  whose  ao-e  we  have  little  but 
analogy  to  guide  us — I  mean  the  conical  mounds  occur- 
rino-  both  within  and  w^ithout  the  walls. 

Of  the  former  there  are  two.  One,  marked  F  on  the  plan, 
stands  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  north 
wall.  Its  height  is  forty-five  feet,  including  fifteen  feet 
of  platform.  The  other  is  about  eight  hundred  yards 
south-west  from  the  former,  and  of  much  less  importance. 
I  dug  trenches,  from  summit  to  base,  completely  through 
each,  but  without  being  rewarded  by  any  discovery.  They 
both  were  composed  of  unbaked  brick. 

At  the  distance  of  a  mile  beyond  the  most  northerly 
point  of  the  walls  is  a  conspicuous  and  important  mound 
of  this  description,  which  bears  the  name  of  iNufFayji 
(J  of  the  plan).  Standing  solitary  in  the  desert,  apart 
from  the  great  mass  of  the  main  ruins,  Nuimyji  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  objects  at  Warka.  In  height  it 
rivals  the  Buwariyya — being  ninety  feet  above  the  plain, 
with  a  circumference  at  its  base  of  nine  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  The  steepness  of  its  sides  renders  the  ascent 
to  the  summit  both  difficult  and  dangerous.  Its  aspect 
is  that  of  a  huge  bell,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of 

•  See  page  9G,  et  seq. 


STYLE  FOR  WRITING  CUNEIFORM.  235 

solid  loam  and  sand  ;  but,  having  failed  to  make  any  dis- 
coveries in  the  smaller  mounds  of  the  same  form,  I  de- 
clined to  attack  it. 

The  purpose  for  which  such  a  pile  outside  the  city 
was  constructed  it  is  difficult  to  understand,  except  it 
were  for  a  watch-tower  or  a  tomb.  The  Arabs  have  an 
idea  that  it  was  raised  by  a  besieging  army,  but  that, 
findino;  it  too  far  distant  from  the  walls  for  their  designs, 
they  raised  a  second  mound  about  eight  hundred  yards 
from  the  north-east  wall,  indicated  at  M  upon  the  plan, 
but  inferior  in  size  to  Nuflfayji. 

Between  Nuffiiyji  and  the  walls  are  several  small 
conical  mounds,  about  twenty-five  feet  high,  apparently, 
in  some  way  or  other,  connected  with  the  large  mounds. 

The  only  article  obtained  in  any  of  these  mounds  is  a 
small  flat  oval  pebble,  of  dark  green  serpentine,  cut  and 
sharpened  exactly  after  the  fashion  of  the  ancient  Celtic 
hatchets  found  in  the  barrows  of  Europe.  Similar  ob- 
jects are  exhumed  from  other  Babylonian  ruins,  but  I 
scarcely  think  they  were  designed  for  the  same  use  as 
that  to  which  they  were  applied  in  far  distant  regions. 
My  own  impression  is  that  it  was  not  a  celt,  but  rather  a 
species  of  style  for  writing  cuneiform  inscriptions.  When 
impressed  upon  soft  clay  or  dough,  it  produces  characters 
precisely  similar  to  those  on  small  clay  tablets  and  cylin- 
ders, for  which  purpose  it  is  admirably  adapted.  In  the 
hand  of  a  ready  writer,  it  might  be  used  with  great  rapid- 
ity and  exactitude. 

Conical  mounds  of  similar  description  occur  at  widely 
different  points  from  Persia  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
are  probably  tumuli.  "Whether,  however,  they  arc  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  ancient  Scyths  or  to  the  Parthians  of 
a  later  period,  is  yet  a  sul)ject  for  the  investigation  of 
the  curious.  To  whatever  race  tliey  may  be  due,  their 
presence  at  Warka  is,  however,  quite   in  keeping  with 


236 


BRICK  CAPITALS  AND  SPIRAL  COLUMNS. 


the  sepulchral  character  of  the  place ;  and  the  bones  of 
the  warrior  kings,  in  whose  memory  they  were  erected, 
may  eventually  be  discovered,  deeply  biu-ied  in  the 
centre,  below  the  level  of  the  desert. 

Besides  the  conical  mounds,  there  is  a  small  square 
mound,'"'  just  outside  the  south-west  wall,  which  deserves 
mention.  It  measures  seventy-six  paces  by  one  hundred 
and  ten,  but  its  height  does  not  exceed  fourteen  feet. 
Upon  its  surface  is  nearly  every  variety  of  inscribed 
brick,  which  occurs  within  the  walls,  and  which,  it  is 
reasonable  to  conclude,  were  removed  at 
a  late  period  in  the  history  of  Warka  to 
their  present  position.,  Among  them  are 
likewise  several  bricks  of  fine  quality, 
cast  in  moulds  for  spiral  columns  and 
ornamental  capitals  of  peculiar  character. 
One  brick  bore  in  relief  a  star  of  twelve 
rays.  None  were  in  situ,  but  they  all  lay 
scattered  about  indiscriminately.  Similar 
bricks  were  sparingly  found  within  the 
ruins,  and  I  observed  others  at  the  mound 
of  El- Assam  on  the  Shat-el-Kahr  beyond 
Sinkara,  and  at  Tel  Usmer  adjoining 
Akker  Kiif  near  Baghdad.  These  are  also 
probably  of  Parthian  origin. 
Among  the  smaller  relics  obtained  at  AVarka,  a  small 
tablet  of  serpentine  is  .deserving 
of  notice.  Upon  one  side  are  four 
lines  of  Babylonian  cuneiform,  and 
upon  the  other  a  figure  which  ap- 
pears to  shew  the  origin  of  cunei- 
form characters  from  pictorial  re- 
presentation. The  latter  is,  as 
every  one  knows,  the  most  ancient  method  of  expressing 
*  N  on  Plan. 


Brick  capital. 


Spiral  column  of 
moulded  bricks. 


/T^ 


Serpentine  Tablet. 


HIEROGLYPHIC  TABLET.  237 

natural  objects,  and  it  has  been  supposed  by  many  that 
the  cuneiform  character,  like  tlie  Egyptian  hieroglyph, 
originated  in  simple  ideography.  By  reference  to  the 
accompanying  diagram  it  will  be  perceived  that  two  lines 
crossed  suppose  the  outline  of  the  human  figure,  and  that 
below  one  hand  is  a  monogram,  as  if  its  cuneiform  equi- 
valent, the  digits  being  expressed  by  five  parallel  strokes. 
What  the  other  symbols  are  it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
I  am  not  aware  that  this  tablet  has  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  cuneiform  scholars,  but  the  present  opportunity  is 
taken  of  laying  it  before  them. 

In  describing  the  walls  at  the  north-east  of  the  ruins,  I 
mentioned  that  they  are  between  forty  and  fifty  feet  high, 
while  on  the  opposite  side  they  do  not  rise  above  the 
desert  level.  It  was  difficidt  to  understand  why  there 
should  be  this  difference  in  theix  elevation,  until  I  ascer- 
tained the  existence  of  the  bed  of  an  ancient  river,'""  which, 
flowing  from  the  north-north-west,  was  turned  eastward 
by  the  height  and  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  thus  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  city.  I  traced  the  channel  for 
a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  great  pile  of  Nuffiiyji, 
which  mound  it  passes  three  hundred  and  fifty  paces  to  the 
westward.  It  afterwards  approaches  within  thirty  paces 
of  the  small  conical  mound  K.  After  touchinir  on  the 
north-east  point  of  the  walls,  it  passes  round  under 
them  towards  the  east,  where  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  one  of  which  holds  its  way  in  the  direction  of 
Sinkara,  and  the  other  continues  its  course  southwards. 
Both  branches  are  lost  after  proceeding  a  short  distance 
further. 

Near  to  Nuffayji,  the  channel  measured  one  hundred 

and  twenty  feet  wide,  and  was  elevated  a  few  feet  above 

the  level  of  the  desert,  its  banks  on  either  side  Ijeino-  about 

five  feet  high.     That  it  was  a  trunk  stream  is  evident 

*  Its  course  is  represented  on  the  Plan,  by  dotted  lines. 


238  SHAT-EL-NfL. 

from  tlie  fact  that  it  gave  off  numerous  secondary  canals 
towards  tlie  west,  one  of  which  was  eighty  feet  broad. 

At  the  point  where  it  meets  the  w^alls,  a  sluice  pro- 
bably admitted  a  small  supply  through  them  into  the 
city ;  but,  if  so,  the  channel  is  now  drifted  up  with  sand. 

My  great  authority  on  the  oral  traditions  of  Warka — 
old  Budda — remembered  that  this  old  cliannel  was  known 
to  the  fathers  of  the  present  generation  of  his  tribe  as  an 
"  ancient  river,'^  which  they  called  the  "  Nil,"  He  knew 
nothing  of  its  origin  or  course,  and  the  "  Shat-el-Nil," 
farther  north,  was  wholly  unknown  to  him. 

It  has  been- eleswhere  stated  that,  at  the  Arab  conquest, 
there  was  an  ancient  branch  of  the  Euphrates  wdiich 
flowed  from  Babylon  in  a  south-east  direction  towards  the 
city  of  Niliyya,  and  joined  the  Tigris  near  the  modern  site 
of  Kiit-el-'Amara.  This  was  called  the  "  Nil,"  and  gave  off 
a  large  stream  to  Zibliyya  and  Niffar  which  is,  I  believe, 
traceable  further  south,  in  the  bed  called  the  "  Es-Sahain," 
or  "  Shkain,"  and  also  in  the  Nil  of  Warka.  At  any  rate, 
it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  same  name  for  an 
"  ancient  river,"  not  "  a  canal,"  should  occur  at  two  such 
distant  points  as  Babylon  and  Warka. 

The  term  "  >S'Aa^el-Nil "  indicates  its  importance.  It 
is,  I  believe,  the  only  ancient  artificial  canal  (Nahr)  which 
has  received  the  appellation  of  "  Shat,"  or  large  river.  As 
etymology  offers  no  ready  solution  for  the  name  Nil,  it  is 
probably  derived  either  from  its  being  thought  worthy  of 
comparison  with  the  Nile  of  Egypt,  or  else  in  commemo- 
ration of  some  important  event  in  the  intercourse  between 
the  Egyptian  and  Chaldsean  nations.y 

If  the  mounds  of  AVarka  have  failed  in  yielding  bas- 
reliefs  and  objects  of  a  higher  class  of  interest,  like  those 
dug  from  the  palaces  of  Assyria,  they  have  at  least  af- 
forded abundance  of  important  information  on  two  sub- 
jects of  which  we  were  previously  in  comparative  igno- 


GENERAL  RESULTS  FROM  EXCAVATIONS.  239 

ranee  ;  namely: — Babylonian  arelntecture,  and  the  mode 
of  burial  during  twenty  centuries  preceding  the  Christian 
era.  From  these  researches,  we  learn  the  existence  of  a 
new  and  original  style  of  architecture,  entirely  uninflu- 
enced by  the  exalted  taste  which  subsequently  prevailed ; 
and  the  situation  of  a  necropolis  of  enormous  extent 
and  extraordinary  sanctity,  probably  derived  from  the 
most  remote  antiquity. 

If  there  be  a  scarcity  of  early  annals,  and  of  more  po- 
sitive information  than  could  have  been  desired,  the  fault 
must  be  assigned  to  the  great  difficulties  attending  exca- 
vations at  so  inaccessible  a  spot,  and  to  the  superimposed 
quantity  of  funeral  remains  covering  up  the  older  relics. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  these  results  were  obtained 
during  the  short  period  of  three  months,  and  that  the 
excavations  were  continually  interrupted  by  overwhelm- 
ing sand-storms.  Warka  may  still  be  considered  as  un- 
explored ;  the  depths  of  its  mounds  are  yet  untouched. 
If  those  of  Nineveh  were  not  thoroughly  examined  in 
thirteen  years,  those  of  Warka  will  require  a  much  longer 
period,  before  we  can  arrive  at  anything  like  a  full  apj^re- 
ciation  of  their  contents,  and  of  the  valuable  information 
to  be  derived  from  them. 

For  the  sake  of  science,  it  is  to  be  hojped  that,  at  some 
period  not  far  distant,  excavations  may  be  resumed 
among  the  mounds  of  Chaldoea  ;  and  I  do  not  hesitate  to 
state  my  conviction  that  each  site  will  yield  its  o^\m  pe- 
culiar records  of  a  past  and  almost  forgotten  age,  and 
that  Warka — the  most  extraordinary  and  important  of 
them  all — will  afford  memorials  and  relics  yielding  to 
none  in  value  and  interest.  From  them  we  may  hope 
for  inucli  additional  light,  not  only  concerning  the  early 
Chaldcean  and  Achoemenian  periods,  but  also  with  relation 
to  its  Greek  and  Parthian  occupiers,  down  to  about  the 
Christian  era. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Siiikara — ^Decamping — Ride  in  a  Sand-drift — ^The  Negro  Lion-slayer — 
A  Nocturnal  Visiter — Dull  uniformity  of  Sinkara — The  Temple  of 
Pharra — ^The  Dream  and  its  Fulfilment — Nebuchadnezzar  and  Ne- 
bonit  rebuilders  of  Temples — Another  great  Necropolis — Tablets 
and  their  Envelopes  of  Clay— Babylonian  Arithmetic — Pictorial 
Records — Boxers  in  the  Land  of  Shinar — The  Dog-devourer. 

Having  made  siicli  excavations  as  appeared  to  me  de- 
sirable at  Warka,  I  determined  on  visitins;  the  neiohbour- 
ing  ruins  of  Sinkara,  which  had  previously  been  reached 
by  Dr  Ross  of  Baghdad,  and  Mr  Baillie  Fraser,  during 
a  hasty  journey  they  made  through  the  Jezireh,  in  the 
year  1834.  In  order  to  effect  this  purpose,  I  stated  my 
wish  to  the  Bedouin  Sheikh  Tellag,  one  day  while  he  was 
honouring  my  tent  with  a  visit.  He  was  no  sooner  made 
aware  of  my  object  than,  seizing  my  hand,  he  exclaimed : — 
"  Beg,  are  we  not  brothers  1  Is  not  your  wish  my  wish  1 
Are  not  my  sheep  and  cattle,  my  mare  and  my  camels, 
yours  also  1  God  is  great !  I  came  here  to  say  that  I 
was  about  to  go  to  Sinkara,  where  there  is  at  least  some- 
thing for  my  beasts  to  eat — which  there  is  not  here — and 
you  gladden  my  heart  by  saying  that  you  are  going  to 
Sinkara  also.  What  can  I  do  for  you  ?  Beg !  my  camels 
and  aU  I  have  are  at  your  service  ;  take  as  many  as  you 
please,  and  accompany  me.  On  the  word  of  a  Shammar, 
no  one  shall  injure  you  while  under  my  shadow,  neither 
shaU  any  of  my  people  harm  your  workmen.  Have  I 
not   already   said    if?      The    word   of    a    Shammar   is 


DEPARTURE  FOR  SINKARA.  241 

truth."     I  took  him  at  his  word,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
all  preliminaries  were  arranged. 

At  daybreak  on  the  third  day  after  this  conversation, 
all  the  camp  was  astir  with  the  usual  sounds  of  prepara- 
tion. Amidst  the  unmusical  gurglings  of  Tellag's  camels 
(which  were  forthcoming  at  the  time  agreed  upon),  and 
the  corresponding  gutturals  of  their  Arab  masters,  the 
din  of  camp  followers,  and  the  war-songs  of  the  Madan, 
my  tents  were  struck  and  the  loads  packed.  In  true 
Arab  fashion,  the  brushwood  (which  had  afforded  shelter 
to  the  workmen)  and  the  refuse  of  the  camp  were  set 
fire  to  as  we  quitted  the  ground,  and  the  spot,  which, 
during  the  past  three  months,  had  been  a  scene  of  con- 
stant bustle  and  confusion,  once  more  resumed  its  wonted 
solitude  and  repose.  Tellag's  tribe  was  already  in  mo- 
tion, and  his  long  strings  of  camels  stalked  majestically 
along  the  barren  desert,  towards  a  more  verdant  pastu- 
rage ;  but,  before  we  could  join  our  forces,  a  furious  squaU 
arose  from  the  south-east,  and  completely  enveloped  us  in 
a  tornado  of  sand,  rendering  it  impossible  to  see  within  a 
few  paces  ;  Tellag  and  his  camels  were  as  invisible  as 
though  they  were  miles  distant.  A  continued  stream  of 
the  finest  sand  drove  directly  into  our  faces,  filling  the 
eyes,  ears,  nose,  and  mouth  with  its  penetrating  particles, 
drying  up  the  moisture  of  the  tongue,  and  choking  the 
action  of  the  lungs.  The  Arabs  tied  their  garments 
closely  round  their  faces,  leaving  only  their  sharp  black 
eyes  visible  from  under  the  protection  afforded  them,  and 
each  man  rode  or  trudged  along  in  silence,  evidently 
unwilling  to  open  his  mouth  lest  it  should  be  instantly 
fiUed  with  the  noxious  sand.  We  shaped  our  course  in 
the  direction  of  Sinkara,  and,  after  proceeding  some  dis- 
tance, were  surprised  to  see  Tellag  riding  on  his  mare, 
unaccompanied,  through  the  storm.  He  was  anxious 
after  my  safety,  and  had  left  his  own  party  to  guide  my 

Q 


242  THE  NEGRO  LION-SLAYER. 

little  caravan.  But  for  Lis  aid,  we  should  in  all  proba- 
bility have  wandered  into  the  marshes  of  the  Shat-el-Hie. 
As  it  was,  even  Tellag  and  the  Arabs  could  not  be  entirely 
depended  on,  because  the  density  of  the  sand  stream  shut 
every  mark  from  view  by  which  they  were  accustomed 
to  guide  themselves.  After  riding  for  about  five  hours, 
Tellag  began  to  look  anxiously  around,  and  to  hold  fre- 
quent consultations  with  the  Arabs  ;  it  was  evident  we 
had  missed  the  point  aimed  at.  During  a  lull  in  the 
storm,  however,  I  fortunately  caught  a  glimpse  of  a  dis- 
tant object,  looming  far  on  our  left.  Tellag  would 
scarcely  believe  me,  but,  after  a  while,  it  appeared  again, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  confess  that  even  he  had  held  too 
southerly  a  course.  Being  now  satisfied  concerning  the 
whereabouts  of  our  goal,  Tellag  left  us  to  search  for  his 
own  camels,  which,  he  feared,  must  also  have  lost  their 
way. 

In  approaching  Sinkara,  some  of  the  advanced  party 
fancied  they  observed  living  creatures  moving  upon  the 
summit  of  a  mound.  My  cook  Miirad,  an  active  and 
daring  negro,  originally  a  slave  from  Mozambique,  dis- 
mounted to  reconnoitre,  because  we  were  in  ignorance  of 
any  Arab  arrivals  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  these  might 
be  either  friends  or  foes.  Milrad  was  a  good  shot ;  so,  gun 
in  hand,  he  silently  advanced  upon  the  dubious  tenants 
of  the  ruins.  They  proved  to  be  two  lion  cubs,  one  of 
which  lay  fast  asleep,  while  the  other  gambolled  round 
its  fellow  like  a  kitten  at  play.  Milnid  fired  a  charge  of 
large  shot,  and,  on  hastening  up,  found  one  animal  dead, 
and  the  other  mortally  wounded,  attempting  in  its 
pain  to  bite  the  body  of  its  companion.  The  fortunate 
sportsman  was  immediately  hailed  as  "  Abu  Seba  in," 
"the  father  of  the  two  lions,"  at  which  Miirad  exposed 
his  rows  of  white  teeth  with  every  symptom  of  pride  and 
satisfaction.      From   that  day  he  was  ever   afterwards 


A  NOCTURNAL  VISITOR.  243 

known  by  the  above  honourable  soubriquet,  and  regarded 
with  reverential  awe  by  the  Arabs,  as  an  invincible  war- 
rior, who  killed  two  lions  at  once. 

The  bodies  were  carried  to  the  ruins,  where  the  tents 
were  pitched,  upon  a  flat  and  convenient  situation  for  the 
encampment.  The  camels  were  unloaded,  and  again  dis- 
missed with  a  strong  party  to  fill  the  water-skins  at  the 
Shat-el-Kahr  two  miles  beyond  the  ruins,  and  to  procure 
brushwood  to  protect  the  Arabs  against  the  cold  wind 
and  driving  sand. 

Before  darkness  set  in,  the  chief  part  of  the  camp 
was  fast  asleep,  completely  worn  out  with  the  fatigue  of 
the  day's  march  ;  the  watchmen  alone  sat  silently  keep- 
ing guard  around  their  little  fires,  which  burned  for  a 
few  seconds  furiously  under  the  impulse  of  fresh  fuel  and 
the  high  wind,  and  then  sank  half  extinguished  under  a 
deluge  of  sand.  Towards  midnight  the  hurricane  abated, 
and  silence  reigned  profound,  when  a  sudden,  deep, 
sepulchral  roar,  several  times  repeated,  roused  the  whole 
camp  once  more  to  life  and  activity.  "  The  lion !  the 
lion ! "  shouted  the  Arabs,  as  they  drew  closer  together, 
piled  brushwood  on  the  watch-fires,  grasped  their  spears, 
sang  their  war-cry,  and  exhibited  other  signs  of  violent 
trepidation  and  alarm.  No  more  sleep  for  them  that 
night:  they  huddled  round  the  fires  in  parties,  told 
stories  of  adventures  with  wild  beasts  till  they  frightened 
themselves  into  the  belief  that  the  lion  was  close  upon 
them,  when  their  shouts  and  songs  would  be  redoubled, 
in  the  hope  of  driving  the  king  of  beasts  away.  The 
horses  snorted,  tugged  at  their  ropes,  and  evinced  every 
disposition  to  free  themselves  from  the  trammels  which 
bound  them.  There  was  no  moon,  so  that  the  deep  in- 
tensity of  the  surrounding  gloom  added  to  the  fears  of 
the  little  community.  Several  times  that  night  I  was 
aroused  by  their  sudden  outcries  and  wild  shouts. 


244  LIONS  AND  ARABS. 

At  daybreak,  it  was  discovered  that  the  wary  animal 
had  made  off  with  a  little  doo-  belonsiuc:  to  the  Arabs, 
which  had  barked  pertinaciously  on  the  first  notification  of 
our  unwelcome  visitor's  presence.  The  huge  footprints 
of  the  hungry  and  irate  brute  were  distinctly  visiljle  on 
the  surface  of  the  newly  drifted  sand,  pacing  round  and 
round,  at  a  respectful  distance  from  the  camp.  With 
da3dight  she  withdrew  to  her  lair  among  the  reeds  and 
underwood  along  the  course  of  the  Shat-el-Kahr. 

Lions  frequent  the  marshes  of  this  region  at  certain 
seasons,  and  do  much  damage  amons;  the  flocks  and  herds 
of  the  Arabs,  who,  as  I  have  said,  shift  their  camps  to 
the  banks  of  the  Kahr  for  the  culture  of  grain  during 
the  early  spring.  It  is  seldom  that  the  king  of  beasts 
dares  to  attack  man,  unless  driven  by  stress  of  hunger. 
When  the  Arabs  muster  strongly  near  Sinkara,  there  is 
generally  abundance  of  sheep  and  buffaloes  to  assuage 
his  hunger;  but  the  Arabs  are  terrified  to  approach  the 
Kahr  alone,  and  I  frequently  saw  them,  when  obliged  to 
do  so,  return  into  camp  trembling  with  fear. 

The  ruins  of  Sinkara,  situated  fifteen  miles  south-east 
of  Warka,  stand  on  the  extreme  verge  of  the  broad  desert 
ridge,  which,  as  before  mentioned,  intervenes  between 
the  inundations  of  the  Euphrates  on  the  west,  and  the 
marshes  of  the  Shat-el-Kahr  on  the  east.  In  ordinary  sea- 
sons, the  waters  of  the  Kahr  extend  close  up  to  the  eastern 
base  of  the  ruins.  These  consist  of  a  low  circular  plat- 
form, about  four  and  a-half  miles  in  circumference,  rising 
gradually  from  the  level  of  the  plain  to  a  central  mound, 
the  highest  point  of  which  is  seventy  feet,  and  is  dis- 
tinctly visible  from  Warka  and  the  Euphrates.  Adjoin- 
ing this  principal  pile  on  the  north-west,  is  a  low  ex- 
tensive ruin,  apparently  consisting  of  a  series  of  brick 
walls  and  pavements.  At  four  hundred  paces,  on  the 
north-east  of  the  great  ruin,  is  a  high  mound  of  large, 


THE  RUINS  OP  SINKARA.  245 

half-baked  red  bricks,  at  the  base  of  which  is  traceable, 
by  the  colour  of  the  soil,  the  outline  of  an  ancient  square 
enclosure,  and  small  chambers  between  thick  walls.  The 
south-east  edge  of  the  whole  platform  is  occupied  by  an 
undulating  ruin  of  considerable  extent,  composed  of  mud 
bricks,  and  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  "  Jemel," 
or  the  camel,  from  the  peculiar  hump  which  rises  from  its 
centre. 

The  surface  of  the  rest  of  the  ruins  is  covered  with 
pavements,  varying  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  square, 
elevated  a  few  feet  above  the  general  debris,  and  con- 
structed of  small  rough  bricks  ;  on  the  north-east  these 
pavements  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  first  inspection  of  these  ruins, 
that  they  all  belong  to  one  period,  and  that  no  later  races 
of  different  origin  have  built  upon  the  edifices  erected 
by  the  ancient  people.  There  are  no  coins,  no  glass,  no 
glazed  pottery,  as  at  Warka;  but  a  uniform  dull  brown 
hue  pervades  everything  about  the  place  :  the  fine  dust, 
the  bricks,  the  pottery,  are  of  the  same  sombre  colour  ; 
the  only  relief  being  presented  in  the  north-east  mound, 
whose  deep  red  bricks  afford  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the 
general  dingy  aspect  of  the  place.  The  soil  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  mounds  at  Warka  was  soft  and  yielding,  but 
that  of  Sinkara  was  infinitely  more  impalpable. 

My  first  efforts'''  were  directed  to  the  principal  ruin, 
which  is  of  oval  form,  its  longest  diameter  being  'from 
north-west  to  south-east.  Owing  to  the  quantity  of  rub- 
bish with  which  it  is  encumbered,  the  expenditure  of  a  very 
large  amount  of  money  and  labour  would  be  required 
before  its  complete  plan  can  be  understood.  I  was  able 
to  ascertain,  however,  that  the  edifice  crowning  its  sum- 
mit was  included  within  an  oval  space,  whose  diameters 

*  The  excavations  and  results  here  described  are  wholly  due  to  the 
Assyrian  Excavation  Fund. 


246  THE  TEMPLE  OF  PHARRA. 

measured  three  himdred  and  twenty  feet  by  two  hundred 
and  twenty  feet.  The  area  was  circumscribed  by  a  wall 
four  feet  two  inches  thick,  which  is  traceable,  with  a  few 
breaks,  from  the  centre  of  the  north-east  side  towards  the 
south,  and  so  to  the  west  point  of  the  mound  where  it  is 
lost,  having  fallen  or  been  carried  away  piecemeal.  It  is 
built  of  square  bricks,  firmly  set  with  bitumen,  and  having 
a  thirteen-line  inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar  upon  the 
under  side  of  each. 

At  the  distance  of  thirty-six  feet  from  the  extreme 
south-east  curve  of  this  wall,  and  at  the  height  of  about  six 
feet  above  its  level,  a  trench  dug  into  the  mound  exposed 
the  wall  of  a  terrace  extending  from  south-west  to  north- 
east. A  second  terrace,  six  feet  above  the  first,  and 
seventy-four  feet  behind  it,  stood  in  front  of  what  has 
undoubtedly  been  the  princijDal  facade  of  the  edifice 
which  crowned  the  summit,  and  formed  the  main  feature 
of  the  ruins.'"'  Although  not  more  than  four  feet  in  heio;ht, 
the  character  of  this  building  might  still  be  determined. 
The  front  extended  sixty-five  feet  in  length,  then  receded 
twelve  feet,  and  ultimately  resumed  its  former  line  forty 
feet  towards  the  south-east  and  six  feet  in  the  opposite 
direction,  beyond  which  it  was  not  traced.  An  entrance, 
nine  feet  wide,  was  discovered  in  the  centre  of  the  sixty-five 
feet  front,  which  was  ornamented  with  ten  stepped  recesses, 
each  one  foot  nine  inches  wide,  jp^^^^  similar  to  those 
on  the  walls  of  the  Wuswas  edifice  of  Warka,  and  the 
small  oratory  at  the  foot  of  the  IVIugeyer.  The  brickwork 
measured  five  feet  thick,  and  was  backed  with  a  mass  of 
sun-dried  brick,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the  upper 
erection  was  a  sun-dried  tower,  faced,  like  the  Mugeyer, 
with  burnt  bricks.     On  the  left  entrance-pier,  close  under 

•  The  position  of  this  structure,  with  its  angles  facing  the  cardinal  points, 
corresponds  with  that  of  Miigeyer,  Wuswas,  and  other  edifices  of  Chaldasan 
origin,  as  previously  remarked. 


ITS  CYLINDER  RECORDS.  247 

the  surface,  lay  a  mucli-damaged  barrel-shaped  cylinder, 
which  appeared  to  have  rolled  from  among  the  sun- 
dried  bricks,  and  to  have  remained  a  length  of  time 
exposed  to  the  weather. 

A  trench  was  carried  through  the  entrance  up  a  sloping 
pavement,  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  bitumen,  and 
bounded  by  brick  walls.  The  pavement,  however,  ceased 
at  fourteen  feet,  and  introduced  us  into  a  most  unpro- 
mising mass  of  mud  brickwork.  Continuing  the  excava- 
tion a  few  feet,  however,  the  workmen  came  upon  a 
second  pavement,  the  position  of  the  bricks  directed 
towards  the  centre  or  highest  point  of  the  ruin.  Turning 
the  trench,  therefore,  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  from 
its  former  course,  the  excavation  was  continued,  and  at 
length  rewarded  our  endeavours  by  the  exhumation  of 
a  second,  smaller,  but  quite  perfect,  cylinder,  about  three 
feet  under  the  surface,  and  five  feet  above  the  pavement. 
It  stood  upright  among  the  mud-bricks,  without  any  pre- 
vious indication  of  its  presence.  Both  at  the  Milgeyer  and 
at  the  Birs  Nimrud,  the  similar  records,  as  I  have  stated, 
were  discovered  in  receptacles  prepared  for  them,  but  in 
this  instance  the  cylinder  lay  completely  surrounded  and 
in  contact  with  the  brickwork.  It  is  five  and  three- 
quarter  inches  long,  and  is  unequally  divided  by  a  line 
round  the  thick  part  of  the  barrel.  On  one  side  are 
twenty-five,  and  on  the  other  twenty-six,  lines  of  cunei- 
form inscription. 

This  discovery  was  accompanied  with  an  amusing  inci- 
dent. My  servant  Ovannes,  who  was  a  great  believer  in 
the  truth  of  dreams,  came  into  my  tent  one  morning 
before  daybreak,  to  say  that  he  was  unable  to  sleep  all 
night  from  being  perpetually  tormented  l)y  a  big  cylinder, 
which  he  attempted  to  lay  hold  of,  but  which  always 
eluded  his  grasp.  He  was  certain  that  this  dream  was 
a  revelation  of  some  wonderful  discovery  in  the  course  of 


248  A  DREAM  AND  THE  CYLINDER. 

the  day,  and  therefore  begged  he  might  be  allowed  to 
mark  out  one  or  two  new  trenches.  He  was  so  energetic 
on  the  subject,  that,  to  satisfy  him,  I  granted  his  request. 
Soon  after  the  men  commenced  work,  I  was  induced,  by 
a  great  shouting,  to  go  to  the  door  of  my  tent.  Ovannes 
was  running  at  fuU  speed  down  the  slope  of  the  great 
mound,  as  if  the  lion  were  after  him.  In  his  haste,  he 
tripped  and  turned  a  somersault  to  the  infinite  amuse- 
ment of  the  Arabs  and  myself,  who,  unable  to  conceive  the 
meaning  of  this  caper,  imagined  he  had  gone  mad.  At 
last  he  approached  sufiiciently  near  to  explain  the  cause 
of  all  the  excitement.  "A  cylinder!  a  cylinder!"  he 
cried ;  "  I  told  you,  Beg,  that  my  dream  would  prove 
true !"  A  cylinder  he  certainly  brought,  obtained,  how- 
ever, not  from  his  new  trenches,  but  from  the  great  trench 
in  the  principal  mound. 

Continuing  the  trench  through  the  unbaked  brickwork 
to  the  highest  point  of  the  mound,  the  workmen  came 
upon  a  mass  of  masonry,  which,  for  some  time,  puzzled 
me  exceedingly.  It  proved  to  be  a  tomb  of  peculiar 
construction  and  undoubted  antiquity,  nearly  every  brick 
bearing  a  stamped  dedication  of  a  temple  to  the  Sun  by 
Urukh,  the  common  founder  of  Warka  and  Nifiar.  That 
it  was  an  original  work,  was  also  evident  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  surrounded  and  covered  by  the  mud  bricks, 
which  contained  the  inscribed  cylinder ;  it  was  likewise 
evident  that  it  was  purposely  concealed,  because  the 
exterior  was  rough  and  daubed  with  bitumen,  and  would 
indicate  that  the  tomb  was  erected  with  the  mound.  On 
digging  downwards,  a  second  and  similar  tomb  was  dis- 
covered below  the  first,  but,  at  the  depth  of  twelve  feet, 
I  failed  to  reach  the  base.  Both  tombs  were  built  into 
and  ao-ainst  the  inside  of  a  solid  wall,  five  feet  in  thickness, 
but  they  had  been  plundered,  most  probably,  centuries  ago. 
The  walls  were  three  feet  three  inches  thick ;  and  the 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR'S  EDIFICE.  249 

interiors  measured  six  feet  deep,  and  one  foot  ten  inches 
wide  ;  the  length  being  six  and  a-half  feet,  of  which  one 
foot  ten  inches,  at  one  extremity,  were  covered  by  a 
vaulted  arch,  formed  by  the  overlapping  of  each  course 
of  bricks  beyond  the  layer  immediately  below. 

Another  trench,  at  right  angles  to  that  in  which  the 
cyhnder  occurred,  revealed  the  corner  of  a  foundation- 
wall  set  in  bitumen,  six  and  a-half  feet  high,  and  the 
same  in  thickness.  Many  of  the  bricks  bore  the  same 
legend  of  Nebuchadnezzar  as  that  upon  the  oval  wall  at 
the  base  of  the  mound.  From  the  lowest  layers  at  this 
corner  were  obtained  two  bricks,  one  edge  of  each  of 
which  was  minutely  inscribed  with  2:)recisely  the  same 
record  as  that  upon  the  barrel  cylinders,  thus,  beyond 
doubt,  fixing  the  date  of  the  upper  part  of  the  mound 
above  the  tombs  as  early  as  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
about  600  B.C.  This  is  confirmed  by  Sir  Henry  Eaw- 
linson's  decipherment  of  the  inscriptions."^'"  He  states 
that  they  commemorate  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  of 
Pharra,  by  that  monarch,  in  the  city  of  Larrak.  A 
description  of  the  same  work  occurs  on  Bellino's  cylinder 
from  Babylon,  published  by  Grotefend.  Nebuchadnezzar 
is  represented  as  digging  into  the  foundations  of  the  old 
temple  of  the  Sun,  which  had  fallen  to  ruins,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  the  ancient  idol,  with  the  intention  of 
placing  it  in  his  new  edifice.  Having  excavated  for  a 
considerable  time,  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  a  fruitless 
search,  and  to  finish  his  building  witliout  it. 

The  same  authority  elsewhere  states,  that  *'  through- 
out the  Babylonian  monuments — that  is,  on  the  bricks 
found  at  Niff'ar,  at  Sinkara,  and  at  Warka,  as  well  as  on 

•  A  third  and  perfect  cylinder  was  also  discovered  at  a  distant  part  of 
the  ruins.  These  numerous  copies  of  the  same  legend  are  the  more 
valuable,  because  of  the  many  variations  which  occur  in  the  cuneifoi'm 
characters  upon  them. 


250  nebonit's  building. 

the  tablets  of  Nebucliadnezzar — the  city  in  question  is 
named  Sikkara  or  Siukareh."  He  further  conjectures 
that  the  Lanchara  of  Berosus,  which  was  the  capital  of 
the  original  Chaldcean  dynasty,  is  a  mistake  of  some 
ancient  copyist  for  Sanchara.'" 

In  this  name  we  probably  have  preserved  that  oiShi7iar, 
the  land  from  whence  the  Biblical  migration  took  place. 

A  king  named  Purna-Puriyast  was  also  a  builder 
here.  I  picked  up  a  brick  with  a  legend  of  sixteen  lines 
bearing  this  name,  which  Avas  at  that  time,  I  believe,  new 
to  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson's  list. 

An  excavation  was  made  into  the  centre  and  base  of 
"El  Heimar,"  or  the  "  red  "  mound.  It  proved  to  be  wholly 
composed  of  half-baked  red  bricks,  measuring  fourteen 
inches  square,  and  four  and-a-lialf  inches  in  thickness. 
As  in  other  buildings  of  similar  character,  previously  de- 
scribed in  these  pages,  layers  of  reeds  occur  at  intervals 
between  the  bricks,  and  the  entire  mass  is  pierced  hori- 
zontally with  numerous  square  apertures.  Its  interior 
yielded  no  information,  but  a  patch  of  building  at  the 
base  of  its  eastern  corner  afforded  a  legend  of  Nebonit, 
the  last  king  of  Babylon,  under  whose  reign,  as  before 
mentioned,  the  empu^e  was  overthrown  by  the  imited 
forces  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  about  538  B.C.  This 
monarch,  like  his  predecessor,  Nebuchadnezzar,  appears 
to  have  repaired  a  more  ancient  structure,  for,  at  the 
northern  corner  of  the  same  ruin,  there  was  uncovered  a 
fragment  of  brick  masonry,  with  a  legend  of  the  Chal- 
daean  king  Khammurabi,  who  is  supposed  to  have  flour- 
ished about  1500  B.C. 

With  the  subsequent  rise  of  the  Persian  empire  after  the 

•See  Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  for  1852, 
p.  15.  Sinlcara  is  likewise  sn2)posed  to  be  the  Sarsa  of  other  inscriptions, 
as  stated  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geog.  Society,  p.  47.  I  cannot 
attempt  to  reconcile  these  different  identifications. 

t  This  monarch  seems  to  have  reigned  about  1650  B.o. 


THE  RIVAL  CITIES.  251 

fall  of  Babylon,  Sinkara  declined  in  importance ;  the  latest 
record  obtained  from  its  mounds  being  a  small  clay 
tablet  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Cambyses.  From 
that  period,  Warka,  the  great  rival  of  Sinkara,  as- 
sumed a  higlier  rank,  at  least  as  a  place  of  sepulture, 
and  engrossed  the  whole  consideration  which  it  had 
previously  shared  in  conjunction  with  Sinkara.  It 
appears  to  have  been  the  only  city  throughout  that 
region  which  survived  the  great  convulsion  attending 
the  taking  of  Babylon.  With  the  extinction  of  the 
native  rulers,  Miigeyer,  Sinkara,  Abii  Shehreyn,  Tel  Sifr, 
Medina,  and  numerous  other  sites  in  Chaldsea,  were  de- 
serted, and  have  remained  so  to  this  day.  Warka  alone 
maintained  its  position  five  hundred  years  longer  as  the 
caj)ital  of  the  district, — saw  the  enfeebled  dominion  of 
the  Persian  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  Grecian  con- 
queror, and  from  him  in  turn  to  the  barbarous  Parthian, 
when  he,  too,  succumbed  under  the  changeable  character 
of  the  times. 

The  aspect  of  the  mounds  of  Sinkara  fully  bears  out 
the  opinion  as  to  their  early  abandonment,  arrived  at 
from  an  investigation  of  the  inscriptions  obtained  from 
them.  It  is  not  among  the  loftiest  mounds  that  we  are 
to  expect  the  oldest  relics.  AU  the  more  ancient  ruins 
of  Chaldsea  are  but  slightly  raised  above  the  desert  level, 
and  the  accumulations  of  ages  are  invariably  sepul- 
chral ;  this  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  Chaldsean 
mounds.  It  would  appear  that  the  early  inhabitants, 
like  those  of  modern  days,  made  a  practice  of  burying 
their  dead  at  certain  places  held  sacred,  from  time  im- 
memorial, by  the  erection  of  a  temple  dedicated  to  some 
deity.  Sinkara  is  one  of  these,  and  its  sepulchral  re- 
mains are  among  the  most  interesting  discoveries  made 
during  my  excavations. 

If  evidence  were  required  that  the  early  Chaldseans 


252  CHALD-^AN  BURIAL. 

practised  the  rite  of  burial,  Sinkara  furnishes  it  beyond 
the  shadow  of  a  doubt.  The  whole  area  of  the  ruins  is 
a  cemetery ;  wherever  an  excavation  was  made,  vaults 
and  graves  invariably  occurred,  and  the  innumerable 
cuneiform  records  contained  in  them  substantiate  their 
undoubted  antiquity.  So  numerous  were  the  clay 
tablets,  I  almost  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  fine 
brown  dust  of  the  mounds  resulted  from  their  decom- 
position ! 

Many  of  the  platforms  mentioned  on  the  north-east 
side  of  the  ruins  were  examined,  and  proved  to  be  family 
vaults.  In  digging  down,  the  workmen  frequently  found 
a  series  of  small  connected  chambers,  containing  quanti- 
ties of  wood-ashes  and  partially-burned  clay  tablets. 
These  were  with  difficulty  extracted  entire  and  after- 
wards preserved,  in  consequence  of  the  damage  received 
from  fire  and  their  state  of  natm^al  disintegration  from 
the  nitrous  earth  composing  them.  Below  the  chambers 
were  frequently  large  vaulted  tombs,  containing  one  or 
more  bodies,  which  were  constructed  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner. Layers  of  bricks  were  placed  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees,  so  as  to  rest  upon  the  layer  previously 
laid  in  the  same  position.  They  were  supported  by  an 
outer  wall  inclining  towards  the  tomb,  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  which  was  closed  with  a  corresponding  wall 
leaning  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  bricks  used  were 
generally  small,  of  coarse  texture,  and  of  light  yellow 
baked  clay  ;  but  they  were  frequently  merely  composed 
of  sun-dried  mud.  The  cement  was,  in  all  cases,  mud. 
The  roofs  were  circular,  and  exhibited  traces  of  red 
paint. 

The  skeleton  was  always  extremely  fragile,  and 
crumbled  to  dust  at  the  slightest  touch.  As  at 
Miigeyer,  it  usually  lay  on  the  left  side,  with  the  finger 
bones  before  the  face.     A  common  baked  clay  plate  was 


VAULTS  AND  THEIR  CONTENTS. 


253 


placed  on  either  side,  with  jars  and  vases  of  various 
forms.  Some  of  the  latter  are  exceedingly  elegant,  par- 
ticularly one  of  convolvulus  shape,  which  is  commonly 
met  with  at  Sinkara,  and  appears  to  be  the  type  of  the 
modern  drinking  kivja  used  at  Baghdad.  A  few  of  the 
forms  of  pottery  peculiar  to  these  ruins  are  engraved  in 
the  accompanying  woodcut.     In  one  vault,  the  bones  of 


Pottery  from  Sinkara. 

several  other  skeletons  were  heaped  up  in  the  corners, 
evidently  for  the  piu^pose  of  giving  place  to  the  last 
deposited  body,  which  occupied  the  centre  of  the  tomb. 
An  armlet  lay  in  the  right  upper  corner,  and  a  large  jar 
near  the  right  foot  contained  a  small  tooth-comb,  made 
of  bone.  Among  the  dust  was  a  rude  white  cylinder, 
and  an  onyx  bead,  with  a  rudely  engraved  figure 
upon  it. 

In  another  vaidt  was  the  skeleton  of  a  tall  large-boned 
man.  With  the  bones  of  the  feet  lay  two  copper  rings, 
and  near  the  chest  a  small  lapis-lazuH  frog,  and  a  couple 
of  agate  beads.  On  the  left  of  the  body  were  five  knuckle- 
bones of  sheep,  and  a  copper  dish  ;  on  the  right  were  two 
beautiful  heart-shaped  red  vases.  In  a  corner  near  the 
feet  were  two  large  water-jars,  and,  close  to  the  head,  a 
smaller  one  containino-  several  beads  and  wood  orna- 
ments,  perhaps  the  tassel  of  a  sash  ;  also,  a  small  head  of 
white  stone  or  plaster,  much  defaced,  through  the  fore- 


254 


ENVELOPED  TABLETS. 


head  of  which  is  a  pin  for  ftistening  it  to  a  stick  or  mace. 
In  the  chamber  above  were  numbers  of  inscribed  clay 
tablets. 

The  contents  of  the  vaults  varied  considerably.  In 
one,  an  urn  contained  a  piece  of  dark-brown  unbaked 
clay,  moulded  into  the  form  of  a  human  hand  and  arm, 
ten  inches  in  length,  which  fell  to  pieces  with  its  own 
weight.  A  second  jar  contained  nothing  but  two  copper 
armlets  ;  a  third,  some  fish's  bones,  and  a  small  terra-cotta 
figure  representing  a  body  in  a  coffin  with 
a  mace  (?)  in  each  hand.'  A  small  and  beau- 
tifully moulded  human  head,  in  unbaked 
clay,  also  occurred  in  another  tomb. 

In  many  instances,  the  bones  of  the 
skeletons  were  found  in  the  upper  cham- 
bers, but  these  were  always  crushed  by  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  earth.  It  was 
from  these  chambers  that  the  clay  records 
were  obtained.  There  were  several  distinct 
varieties.  The  most  common  were  minutely- 
inscribed  small  tablets,  contained  wdthin  a  thin  clay 
envelope,  similarly  inscribed,  and  likewise  covered  with 
the  impressions  of  those  cylinder  seals,  of  which  so 
many  are  to  be  seen  in  our  museums.  These  tablets 
were  doubtless  family  records,  but  they  are  highly  inte- 
resting, because  they  shew  us  the  particular  use  to 
which  the  cylinder-seals  were  applied.  The  Chaldseans 
were  not  contented  with  a  simple  impression,  but  rolled 
the  cylinder  over  the  entire  written  document,  thus 
preventing  all  chance  or  possibility  of  forgery.  The 
clay  of  the  tablet  must  have  been  perfectly  dry  before  it 
was  enclosed,  because  the  inner  side  of  the  envelope  bears 
a  cast,  in  relief,  of  the  inscription  beneath.  These 
records  vary  from  an  inch  to  four  or  five  inches  in  length  ; 
but  the  thinness  of  the  envelope  causes  it  to  be  seldom 


Terra-cotta  figrirs 
of  a  body  in  a  coffin 


ARITHMETICAL  CALCULATIONS.  255 

found  entire.'^'^  One  of  the  smallest  of  these  enclosed 
tablets,  with  its  envelope  tolerably  perfect,  bore  upon  it 
the  name  of  Cambyses. 

Clay  cakes,  three  inches  in  diameter,  are  also  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  with  rude  cuneiform  inscriptions  on 
one  or  both  sides,  t 

There  is  evidence,  too,  that  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Babylonia  used  other  materials  for  their  written  docu- 
ments. Among  the  tablets  were  found  many  triangular 
lumps  of  clay  covered,  like  them,  with  the  impressions  of 
rolled  cylinders.  At  two  of  the  corners  are  the  holes 
through  which  cords  passed  and  attached  them  to  parch- 
ment, papyrus,  or  leather. 

From  the  fact  that  many  of  these  objects  were  damaged 
by  fire,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  Avas  a 
prevalent  custom  of  the  Babylonians  to  burn  the  private 
records  of  the  dead  over  their  graves.  I  know  of  no 
other  cause  to  account  for  their  blackened  appearance, 
and  the  quantity  of  wood-ashes  with  which  they  are 
always  associated. 

Among  other  clay  documents,  I  must  not  omit  to 
mention  a  small  tablet,  which  confirms  the  statement  of 
Berosus,  that  the  Babylonians  made  use  of  a  sexagesimal 
notation — the  unit  of  which  was  termed  a  "  Sossius  " — 
as  well  as  a  decimal  notation.  The  record  in  question  is 
a  table  of  squares.  It  has  been  already  published  by  Sir 
Henry  Eawlinsou ;  J  but  I  am  tempted  to  extract  from  it 
the  following,  as  a  specimen  of  the  advance  made  at  that 
early  date  in  arithmetical  calculations  : — 

*  The  same  system  of  enveloping  tablets  in  clay  cases  likewise  prevailed 
at  Nineveh.  In  examining  the  numerous  collections  in  the  British  Museum, 
I  observed  one  or  two  with  envelopes  attached,  and  the  form  of  many 
others  indicates  that  they  had  once  been  enclosed.  This  fact  had  hitherto 
escaped  observation. 

t  Mr  Layard  figures  a  cake  of  somewhat  similar  kind  at  p.  164  of  his 
"Nineveh  and  Babylon." 

X  Journal  of  Royal  Geogr.  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  218,  note. 


256  TABLE  OF  SQUARE  ROOTS  IN  CUNEIFORM. 

Soss.     Units,         Soss.  Units.*      The  Square  of 

«^       //yj     or    50      25      =        yi  ^^^<IU     or    55^   =    3025 


IJ  ^  or  54  9  =  %T  <<<TTT  ^r  57=  =  3249 

in  nf  or  56  4  =  ^l    ^^i^  or  58^  ==  3364 

nj  T  or  58  1  =  ^1  <«  g  or  59=  =  3481 

T  or  60  00  =  ^^    T 


<« 
« 


or    60'-  =    3600 


"  As  we  liere  find  the  Unit  and  the  Soss  to  be  both 
represented  by  ]  ,  while  the  decades  of  each  series  are 
indicated  by  <^,  it  is  evident  that  the  Babylonian  nota- 
tion consisted  of  a  double  recurring  series,  in  which 
the  elements  <^  and  |  were  used  respectively  for  the 
decades  and  imits  of  the  integers  of  60." 

The  upper  chambers  of  the  Sinkara  tombs  also  yielded 
a  few  curious  tablets  of*  baked  clay,  which  are  not  only 
interesting  as  exhibiting  the  state  of  the  arts,  but  as 
illustrating  the  costume,  occupation,  and  worship  of  the 
Chaldseans.  The  sculptures  in  the  palaces  of  Nineveh 
were  historical  monuments,  erected  by  the  kings  of 
Assyria  to  perpetuate  their  own  exploits  and  greatness ; 
but  the  people  are  only  shewn  as  subservient  to  the  will 
of  their  monarch.  In  the  little  tablets  from  Sinkara  is 
depicted  the  everyday  life  of  the  people,  modelled  by 
themselves,  without  any  royal  influence  to  produce  the 
best  works  of  the  best  artists.  Rude  as  they  are,  these 
designs   prove  that    the   Chaldaeans — if  they  had  pos- 

*  The  calculation  is  made  thus  :— 50  Soss.   x   60  +  25  =  3025,  or  55? 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  60  units  =  1  Sossus. 

60  Sossi  =  1  Sarus. 


PICTORIAL  TABLETS — THE  BOXERS.  257 

sessed  stone  for  the  purpose  —  could  have  executed 
sculptures  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  those  of  the  Assyrians ; 
and  that  the  palaces  and  temples  of  the  Chaldsean  kings 
were,  undoubtedly,  as  highly  ornamented  as  either  those 
of  Egypt  or  Assyria — not,  perhaps,  with  bas-reliefs,  but 
with  "figures  portrayed  upon  the  walls"  in  coloured 
plaster. 

The  following  tablets"'  may  be  mentioned  as  having 
been  found  over  the  same  vault : — 


I  :?* 


tOTwitjiaiidiKfinit'''  ''m  iilT'ii'iiiirHrr'im''F''i-S'iir|ii^^  -ic 

"''J  ff/f  <-//i'3'i'/r/.-      T> 

Clay  Tablet  from  a  Tomb  at  Sinkara. 

1.  Two  figures,  apparently  boys,  boxing,  in  the  most 
approved  fashion  of  the  "ring" — a  proof  that  the 
pugilistic  art  was  practised  and  understood  in  the 
marshes  of  Chaldsea  centuries  before  England  was  known 
to  the  world  !  The  positions  taken  by  the  figures  are 
admirable.  They  are  either  stripped  for  the  purpose,  or 
they  wear  a  costume  similar  to  the  Madan  tribes  of  the 
present  day — an  abba,  or  cloak,  tied  round  the  waist, 
the  rest  of  the  body  being  bare.  On  their  heads  are 
skull-caps.     A  third  figure,  standing  with  his  back  to  the 

*  The  tablet  representing  a  man  and  Indian  dog,  obtained  in  Babylonia' 
by  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson,  and  figured  at  page  527  of  Layavd's  "  Nineveh 
and  Babylon,"  much  resembles  these  Sinkara  tablets,  and  was  probably 
procured  bv  the  Arabs  from  an  ancient  grave  or  tomb. 


i-^' 


258 


THE  LION  S  FEAST. 


combatants,  seems  to  appeal  over  a  huge  vase,  much 
resembling  those  used  in  interring  the  dead,  to  a  female  (?) 
wearing  a  long  garment  and  a  turban.  She  is  seated  on 
a  stool  beating  cymbals. 

2.  A  lion  disturbed  in  his  feast  off  a  bullock,  by  a  man 
armed  with  club  and  hatchet.  The  costume  of  the  human 
ligui-e  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  modern  Arab  : 
it  consists  of  an  abba  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  a  short 


Clay  Tablet  from  Sinkara. 

tunic,  and  a  band  of  camel's  hair  round  the  head.  The 
action  of  the  lion  roaring  and  lashing  his  tail  with  mane 
erect  (although  one  paw  is  very  rudely  represented)  is 
extremely  spirited,  and  shews  considerable  knowledge  of 
the  lion  on  the  part  of  the  artist.  A  fragment  has  been 
broken  out,  and  again  mended  with  bitumen. 

3.  This  tablet  is  not  flat  like  the  others,  but  is  made 
with  a  projecting  stand,  and  rounded  at  the  back.  Upon 
it  is  represented  the  figure  with  the  conical  head-dress, 
and  long  robes,  usually  seen  upon  small  cyhnders,  and 
of  which  impressions  occur  upon  the  inscribed  tablets. 
One  foot  is  placed  on  a  kind  of  stool,  and  the  left  hand 
holds  a  mace  or  some  indescribable  implement.     Above 


PICTORIAL  TABLETS. 


259 


are  the  Clialdsean  emblems — the  crescent,  and  an  eight 
rayed  star  enclosed  within  a 
circle.     The  tablet  is  pierced 
with  three  holes. 

From  the  tombs  were  ob- 
tained tablets,  with  figures  of 
a  lion  devouring  a  prostrate 
human  being  ;  a  man  carrying 
a  fish  ;  and  an  Indian  dog. 

The  lion  appears,  from  these 
tablets,  to  have  been  indigen- 
ous to  the  Chaldsean  marshes 
in  very  early  times.  I  much 
doubt,  however,  if  the  mo- 
dern Arab  would  dare,  single- 
handed,  to  attack  the  infu- 
riated beast  while  satiating 
his  hunger  on  his  prey.  Fre- 
quently, during  my  stay  at 
Sinkara,  the  deep  grunt  of 
the  lioness  was  audible  upon 
the  mounds  or  close  to  the 
precincts  of  the  camp.  I  had 
many  times  before  heard  what 
is  called  the  roar  of  the  lion  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  but 
it  considerably  disappointed  my  expectations.  The  pre- 
conceived idea  of  a  lion's  roar  is  of  something  noble  and 
terrible  in  the  extreme  ;  this,  however,  is  not  the  case 
with  the  lion  of  Mesopotamia;  the  sound  which  he  utters 
is  like  the  squall  of  a  child  in  pain,  or  the  first  cry  of  the 
jackal  at  sunset,  but  infinitely  louder,  clearer,  and  more 
prolonged. 

The  nocturnal  wail  of  the  lioness  at  Sinkara  in  search 
of  her  cubs  was  truly  imposing,  and  struck  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  my  nearly  naked  Arabs.     I  could  scarcely 


Clay  Tablet  from  Sinkara* 


260 


THE  DEATH  OF  TOGA. 


Clay  Tablet  from  Sinkara. 


be  persuaded  that  it  was  not  the  lion  himself,  until  they, 
one  and  all,  declared  positively  it  was  the  lioness.  Dur- 
ing the  day-time  she  lay  quiet 
in  the  jungle  by  the  side  of  the 
Kahr,  and  was  only  seen  once  or 
twice  by  a  solitary  shepherd. 
At  night  her  approach  was  al- 
ways made  known  to  us  by  the 
vehement  barking  of  some  half- 
dozen  dogs  belongmg  to  the 
Arabs,  which  gave  furious  tongue 
at  some  distance  from  the  camp. 
The  lioness  was  too  cunning  for 
our  canine  guardians ;  gradually 
their  number  decreased,  until 
oiu'  greatest  favourite.  Toga, 
alone  remained.  One  pitch  dark 
night  Toga  was  more  energetic 
than  usual  in  warning  us  of  our  enemy's  position  ;  at  last, 
apparently  tired  of  his  exertions,  he  returned  sullenly  into 
camp,  and  lay  down  close  to  my  tent-ropes,  growling 
audibly.  Soon  afterwards  a  sudden  rush,  followed  by  two 
or  three  bounds,  making  the  very  ground  tremble  like 
the  galloping  of  horsemen,  informed  the  whole  encamp- 
ment that  the  dog-devourer  was  among  us.  Poor  Toga 
was  heard  to  give  one  stifled  yelp,  and  all  was  over  with 
our  last  guardian  ;  he  was  carried  oj0f  and  demolished  at 
a  meal.  The  insatiable  monster  had  crouched  behind  the 
rubbish  of  an  adjoining  excavation,  waiting  her  opportu- 
nity for  the  fatal  spring.  Her  traces  were  next  morning 
visible  in  the  sand,  passing  within  a  few  yards  of  a  watch- 
fire,  which  was  surrounded  by  a  party  of  Arabs  in  full 
conclave.  It  may  be  imagined  that,  on  the  first  notice  of 
the  dreaded  beast's  approach,  they  were  scattered  like  a 
flock  of  sheep.     The  camp  never  recovered  its  composure 


A  HUNT  IN  THE  DAEK.  2dl 

again  that  niglit,  and  the  following  day's  work  was  but  a 
sorry  one. 

Fearing  for  the  safety  of  the  horses  and  camels,  as  soon 
as  the  animal  made  known  her  presence  next  evening,  I 
hastily  proj^osed  an  expedition  against  her,  and  set  out 
armed,  with  "Ab\i  Seba  in,"  and  Mahommed  Agha,  my 
cawas  carrying  loaded  guns.  The  Arabs  were  told  to 
follow  if  they  pleased.  We  crept  silently  to  the  summit 
of  the  red  mound,  and  halted  to  ascertain  where  the  enemy 
lay.  Here  Ovannes,  Tellag  (who  had  come  to  spend  the 
evening  with  me),  and  Budda,  as  a  matter  of  course,  with 
a  few  of  the  Tuweyba,  soon  joined  us,  all  armed  with 
spears.  Tellag,  undertaking  the  office  of  monitor,  with 
ominous  voice  reminded  me  that  it  was  very  dark,  and 
that  the  wild  beast  was  mad  from  the  loss  of  her  young, 
and  from  her  continued  taste  of  blood.  Seizing  me  by 
the  arm,  and  pointing  to  the  spear  which  I  carried,  he 
exclaimed  : — "  Beg  !  if  the  tufenk  (gim)  misses,  what,  in 
the  name  of  Allah,  is  the  use  of  that  reed?"  I  was  per- 
fectly sensible  of  the  correctness  of  his  remark,  but  was 
determined  to  proceed  fiu'ther,  if  it  were  only  to  ascertain 
whether  the  hearts  of  my  men  were  in  their  right  places. 
We  descended  from  the  red  mound,  and  advanced  towards 
the  foot  of  the  great  ruin  ;  but  alas  !  it  became  more  and 
more  evident,  each  step  we  proceeded,  that,  although 
Tellag  and  the  Arabs  would  have  willingly  bared  their 
arms,  tied  up  the  sleeves  of  their  zibbiins,  and  followed 
me  against  a  human  enemy  by  daylight,  they  were  not 
disposed  to  attack  an  enraged  lioness  in  the  dread  dark- 
ness of  night.  If  the  beast  could  have  been  seen  in  the 
distance,  all  would  have  made  off  at  full  speed  to  the 
camp.  Mahommed  Agha  could  scarcely  hold  his  gun  from 
fear.  At  the  base  of  the  great  ruin  a  second  halt  was 
called,  and  we  listened  attentively.  Something  was 
heard  to  stir  among  the  bricks  on  the  summit,  and  the 


262  A  FALSE  ALARM, 

next  instant  the  queen  of  beasts  uttered  a  loud  roar;  my 
companions,  with  one  accord,  looked  behind  them  to  ascer- 
tain if  the  coast  were  clear.  An  instant  afterwards  her 
roar  was  again  heard  as  she  made  off  in  the  distance,  to 
the  unspeakable  relief  of  my  companions-in-arms. 

In  returning  to  camp,  the  Arabs  determined  to  eke  out 
their  excitement  by  a  piece  of  fun.  At  a  convenient 
distance  a  general  shriek  "was  raised,  and  all  rushed 
towards  the  watchfires  at  full  speed,  as  if  the  lioness 
were  at  our  heels.  The  Arabs  who  remained  in  camp, 
thinking  such  was  really  the  case,  ran  out  to  give  us 
succour,  grasping  their  spears  and  singing  their  war-cry 
as  usual.  When  the  deception  was  discovered,  a  merry 
laughing  ensued,  and  each  man  sang  and  danced  with 
the  excitement.  In  this  scene  the  Arab  character  ap- 
peared without  disguise.  Unwilling  to  make  an  attack  in 
cold  blood  and  darkness  upon  a  wild  beast,  those  in  camp 
were  prepared  to  resist  an  attack,  and  to  advance  to  the 
aid  of  their  fellows,  whom  they  supposed  in  danger. 
Tellag,  however,  did  not  so  soon  forget  the  rashness  of 
the  enterprise  :  he  followed  me  into  my  tent,  and  ex- 
postulated with  me  on  the  subject.  "  She  is  gone  now," 
said  he,  "  but  will  most  assuredly  attack  and  kill  the 
first  Arab  she  meets,  out  of  revenge  for  our  attempt 
against  her !" 


CHAPTER  XXL 

Treasures  found  at  Tel  Sifr — Juvenile  Footpads — Medina — Yusuf  and 
his  Excavations  at  Tel  Sifr — Large  Collection  of  Curiosities  in 
Copper — Private  Eecords,  B.C.  1500 — Female  Excavators — The 
Works  in  Chaldaea  abruptly  interrupted — Leave-taking — Grateful 
Labourers — Embarkation  on  the  Euphrates — River-craft  and  Am- 
phibious Arabs — "  The  Mother  of  Mosquitoes." 

From  Sinkara  several  large  mounds  are  visible  across 
the  Shat-el-Kahr,  among  which  Ablah,  El-Assam,  and 
Tel  Sifr,  are  the  most  important.  Having  heard  from 
the  Tuweyba  promising  accounts  of  the  last-named 
ruin,  and  of  one  more  distant,  called  Medina,  I  paid 
them  a  visit,  and  was  induced  to  send  a  couple  of  work- 
ing parties,  imder  the  direction  of  overseers,  to  open 
trenches  at  positions  I  had  marked  out.  At  daybreak 
on  the  fourth  day  after  their  departure,  a  messenger 
arrived  from  Tel  Sifr,  with  the  information  that  a  quan- 
tity of  copper  articles  were  discovered  on  the  previous 
evening,  as  the  men  were  leaving  off  work.  I  was  pre- 
paring to  set  out  at  once,  but  was  informed  that  the 
Kahr  had  risen  so  considerably  as  to  render  it  impossible 
for  me  to  cross  without  a  boat.  While  reflecting  on  the 
best  plan  to  be  adopted,  a  second  messenger  arrived  with 
a  basketful  of  the  new-found  treasures.  He  informed 
me  that  there  were  as  many  as  a  mule's  load  waiting  to 
be  conveyed  across  the  Shat-el-Kahr.  He  had  crossed 
with  the  copper  on  his  head  and  the  water  reaching  tc 
his  chin. 


2G4  A  MESdExVGER  FROM  MEDINA. 

While  an  Arab  was  despatched  to  Tellag  to  borrow 
sheep-skins  for  a  raft,  Ovaunes  proposed  to  ride  off  with- 
out delay  and  swim  the  stream  on  horseback.  This  was 
the  only  method  of  getting  over  the  difficulty ;  so  away 
he  went,  accompanied  by  an  Arab  on  a  mule,  carrying 
the  baskets  which  the  cook  used  for  the  conveyance  of 
his  pots  and  kettles.  He  took  with  him  a  small  box,  a 
packet  of  paper,  and  a  bag  of  cotton  for  wrapping  up 
any  fragile  articles  which  might  require  especial  care. 

He  had  scarcely  disappeared  when  a  third  messenger 
arrived — this  time  from  Medina — Avith  a  small  tablet  of 
unbaked  clay  from  the  surface  of  a  tomb.  The  poor 
fellow  was  shivering  with  ague,  induced  by  fright,  from 
encountering  a  lion  by  the  way.  He  thought  his  last 
houj  arrived  ;  for  the  animal  espied  him,  lashed  his  tail, 
and  roared  as  he  made  towards  the  terrified  Arab,  who 
sank  to  the  earth  with  a  prayer  for  the  protection  of 
Allah.  On  waking  from  the  stupor  into  which  he  had 
fallen,  he  discovered,  to  his  great  relief,  that  his  prayer 
was  granted,  and  that  the  lion  had  disappeared  ;  he, 
therefore,  lost  no  time  in  putting  the  river  between  him- 
self and  the  animal.  The  poor  fellow  arrived  completely 
stricken  with  fear. 

Shortly  afterwards  I  was  met  by  a  fourth  messenger 
from  Tel  Sifr,  who  brought  with  him  a  very  beautiful 
and  quite  perfect  tablet  of  unbaked  clay,  as  a  specimen 
of  "ketliir  !  kethir  !" — "many  !  many  !"  which  had  been 
just  discovered.  Ovaunes  had  not  met  this  messenger, 
and,  therefore,  received  a  welcome  surprise  on  reaching 
the  Tel.  The  overseer,  Yusuf,  was  in  the  act  of  wrapping 
up  the  last  of  a  large  collection  of  beautiful  tablets. 
Having  exhausted  all  the  stock  of  paper  taken  for  the 
purpose,  he  was  driven  to  the  sad  alternative  of  tearing 
up  his  blue  calico  trousers,  and  the  skirts  of  his  shii't,  to 
supply  the  deficiency.    Ovannes  found  him  directing  ope- 


CROSSING  THE  SHAT-EL-KAHR.  2(35 

rations  in  liis  drawers.  All  the  spoils  were  soon  packed, 
and  conveyed  to  the  Shat-el-Kiihr  upon  the  back  of  the 
mule,  which  staggered  under  the  weight  of  the  burden. 
They  were  there  unloaded  and  carried  in  baskets  across 
the  river  on  a  man's  head — the  same  who  broke  his  coUar 
bone  a  month  previously !  He  was  a  tall  strong  man,  and 
walked  with  the  water  just  reaching  to  his  mouth,  while 
two  Arabs  swam  on  either  side  supporting  him. 

Tellao-  collected  from  the  women  of  the  Shammar 
camp  half-a-dozen  water-skins,  and,  next  morning  at 
daybreak,  they  were  sent  down  to  the  Shat-el-Kahr, 
where  they  were  tied  to  a  few  pieces  of  wood  and 
tamarisk  twigs,  cut  from  the  brushwood  which  grew  at 
hand,  and,  in  a  few  minutes,  converted  into  a  primitive 
kelek.  The  horses  w^ere  soon  stripped,  a  saddle-cloth 
was  spread  for  my  seat,  and,  with  a  "  bismillah," — "  in 
the  name  of  God" — I  was  pushed  off  iufco  the  stream.  At 
the  point  chosen  for  crossing,  a  large  island  divided  the 
Shat-el-Kahr  into  two  parts.  In  the  first  branch  the 
water  reached  to  the  shoulders  of  the  two  Arabs  who 
guided  the  kelek  before  them. 

The  horses  were  led  over  by  their  groom,  and  the 
kelek  made  a  second  voyage  for  Ovannes  and  the  saddles. 
It  was  then  carried  across  the  island  to  the  larger  branch 
of  the  stream,  over  which  we  were  transported  in  a  similar 
manner,  except  that,  the  channel  being  two  hundred  feet 
wide,  deep,  and  with  a  rapid  current,  the  kelekjls  were 
obliged  to  swim,  and  we  drifted  a  considerable  distance 
together  down  the  Shat.  The  horses  were  saddled, 
and  we  once  more  set  oif  at  a  round  pace  in  the  direction 
pointed  out  as  that  of  Tel  Sifr,  for  it  was  impossible  to 
see  through  a  driving  sand-storm.  After  riding  about  an 
hour,  we  approached  a  large  mound,  which  proved  to  be 
that  of  El  Assam — much  to  the  left  of  our  proper  course. 
Being  then  nearer  to  Medina  than  to  Tel  Sifr,  I  deter- 


266       THE  YOUNG  HERO  OF  THE  TUWEYBA. 

mined  to  visit  the  former  place  first,  in  order  to  see  what 
had  been  done  there.  In  galloping  along,  I  was  hailed 
by  two  shepherd  boys,  belonging  to  the  main  divisions  of 
the  Tuweyba  tribe,  whose  tents  were  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  older  might  be  twelve,  the  younger  ten  years 
of  age  ;  they  were  armed  with  clubs  and  spears.  "  Stop, 
stop !  don't  be  afraid  ;  we  will  not  hurt  you !"  said  they, 
running  up,  with  their  long  hair  streaming  over  their 
swarthy  shoulders.  "  It  is  you  who  should  be  afraid  ;  we 
are  horsemen — ^you  are  on  foot,"  said  I.  "  Oh !  but  we 
don't  fear  two  horsemen  only,  if  there  be  no  more  behind," 
replied  the  younger  little  fellow,  as  he  looked  in  the 
direction  we  had  come.  He  was  a  fine  intelligent  boy, 
with  sparkling  black  eyes,  that  betokened  a  future 
Sheitan,  or  dare-devil.  "  But  horsemen  sometimes  carry 
fire,"  I  replied,  pointing  to  my  holsters.  "  Yes !  I  know 
fire  kills,  but  that  saddle  cannot  hurt,"  he  retorted,  as  he 
touched  the  leather  case.  "  No  !  that  cannot  harm  you, 
but  this  might,"  said  I,  exposing  the  butt-end  of  a  pistol. 
"  God  is  great !"  exclaimed  the  young  hero,  as  he  coloured 
up,  and  drew  himself  a  step  back  from  the  dreaded 
weajDon.  Being  eventually  assured  that  we  were  friends, 
they  directed  us  towards  Medina,  which  we  reached  after 
a  quarter  of  an  hour's  further  ride,  by  which  time  the 
wind  and  dust  had  abated. 

The  overseer,  whom  I  had  despatched  to  this  ruin, 
was  a  very  shrewd,  active,  and  honest  young  fellow, 
named  Hannah,  a  Chaldaean  from  Mosul,  who  had  worked 
in  the  trenches  at  Nineveh.  He  was  one  of  my  best 
men,  and  usually  proved  lucky;  he  was  delighted  to 
see  me,  but  his  look  at  once  announced  that,  on  this 
occasion,  his  customary  good  fortune  had  failed  him.  His 
numerous  trenches  had  only  yielded  a  single  clay  tablet, 
a  few  insignificant  copper  articles,  and  pottery  of  the 
forms  common  at  Sinkara,  among  which  were  some  pretty 


TUWEYBA  ENCAMPMENT.  267 

specimens  of  the  bell-shaped  drinking  vase."'"  The  fault 
was  not  Hannah's  :  he  had  dug  deeply  and  earnestly. 

The  mounds  were  of  considerable  extent,  running  in  a 
line  from  south-west  to  north-east.  There  was  nothing 
to  shew  that  Medina  had  been  more  than  a  small 
cemetery.  It  abounded  in  brick  vaults,  similar  to  those 
at  Sinkara,  one  of  which  contained  no  less  than  four 
skeletons,  lying  one  upon  the  other.  The  workmen  were 
afraid  of  the  solitude ;  there  were  no  Arabs  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, so  that  they  were  obliged  to  sleep  at  night  in 
the  tombs  which  they  had  discovered  during  the  day.  A 
dismal  place  it  certainly  was,  with  an  unbounded  view  of 
marsh  towards  the  south-east,  and  a  desert  bearing  an 
abundant  crop  of  ancient  remains,  in  every  other  direction. 
The  water  reached  to  the  base  ot  the  mound — a  perfect 
dead  sea — without  reeds,  or  other  evidence  of  vegetation 
appearing  on  its  salt-incrusted  shore.  The  Arabs  pointed 
out  Shatrat  in  the  distance,  but  it  was  far  beyond  my 
vision.  They  begged  hard  to  be  allowed  to  return,  and, 
there  being  no  great  prospect  of  a  successful  issue  in 
further  excavations,  their  request  was  granted.  A  minute 
or  two  sufficed  to  pack  up  their  property,  and  to  turn 
their  faces  campwards. 

From  Medina  I  galloped  to  Tel  Sifr,  at  the  foot  of 
which  was  encamped  a  numerous  body  of  the  Tuweyba 
tribe.  Their  black  tents  were  low  and  small,  but  arranged 
in  long  lines,  at  regular  distances,  after  a  more  systematic 
manner  than  any  Arab  camp  I  ever  saw.  The  denizens 
were  a  wild  race,  but  among  them  I  noticed  many 
remarkably  fine  men  and  women — the  latter  with  huge 
nose-rings,  and  other  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver. 
Unlike  my  workmen,  who  were  evidently  of  the  lowest 

•  One  of  which  is  engraved  at  page  253. 

t  Shatra  is  a  reed  village  among  the  marshes  of  the  Shat-cl-IIie — a  species 
of  market-town  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  region. 


268  DISCOVERY  OF  COPPER  ARTICLES. 

class,  they  appetired  well-fed,  and  otherwise  in  good  con- 
dition ;  the  men  Avere  lolling  about  at  their  ease,  basking 
in  the  sun,  or  sitting  by  the  side  of  the  women,  who  were 
generally  engaged  in  spinning.  Their  countenances  bore 
a  strong  resemblance  to  our  English  gipsies.  There  was 
an  air  of  quiet  repose  about  the  scene,  quite  charming 
to  me  after  the  noisy  squabbles  which  ensued  after  each 
day's  excavations  on  the  ruins.  The  arrival  of  a  Firenghl 
might  have  been  an  everyday  occurrence,  for  they  scarcely 
stirred  from  their  occupations;  while  in  other  more  civilised 
tribes  men,  women,  and  children  would  have  collected 
round,  in  gaping  astonishment. 

Yiisuf  and  his  gang  were  hard  at  work,  covered  with 
perspiration  and  dust ;  they  had  cut  some  enormous 
gashes  into  the  little  conical  mound,  which  crowns  a  low 
platform  nowhere  exceeding  forty  feet  above  the  desert. 
With  the  exception  of  the  cone,  the  whole  surface  of  the 
platform,  which  was  of  much  less  extent  than  Sinkara, 
was  completely  burrowed  by  old  Budda  and  his  grave- 
hunting  fraternity.  The  dead  were  buiied  here  also  in 
oblong  brick  graves,  for  the  most  part  vaulted,  and 
painted  red  inside.  The  name  of  Tel  "  Sifr "  is  derived 
from  the  numerous  "'  copper  "  articles  found  by  the  Arabs 
in  the  vaults,  and  was  still  more  appropriate  after 
Yiisuf  s  excavations. 

A  trench  was  dug  into  the  south-east  side  of  the  prin- 
cipal mound,  according  to  instructions,  and  §oon  came 
against  a  brick  wall,  which,  from  its  position,  supported 
by  a  three-feet  buttress,  and  its  elevation  in  two-inch 
gradines,  was  evidently  the  exterior  of  a  building.  Its 
thickness  was  not  ascertained,  but  it  encased  an  internal 
mass  of  mud  brickwork,  as  explained  by  some  other 
trenches.  FoUowino^  this  wall  for  a  distance  of  about 
six  feet,  the  workmen  discovered  a  number  of  copper 
articles  arranged  along  it,  which  form  a  very  cmious 


IMPLEMENTS  OF  COPPER.  269 

and  quite  unique  collection,  consisting  of  large  chal- 
drons, vases,  small  dishes,  and  dice-boxes  C?)  ;  ham- 
mers, chisels,  adzes,  and  hatchets  ;  a  large  assortment  of 
knives  and  daggers  of  various  sizes  and  shapes — all  un- 
finished ;  massive  and  smaller  rings  ;  a  pair  of  prisoner's 
fetters  ;  three  links  of  a  strong  chain  ;  a  ring  weight  ; 
several  plates  resembling  horses'  shoes,  divided  at  the  heel 
for  the  insertion  of  a  handle,  and  having  two  holes  in 
each  for  pins  ;  other  plates  of  a  different  shape,  which 
were  probably  primitive  hatchet^  ;  an  ingot  of  copper, 
and  a  great  weight  of  dross  from  the  same  smelted 
metal.'""  There  was  likewise  a  small  fra2;ment  of  a 
bitumen  bowl  overlaid  with  thin  copper;  and  a  piece 
of  lead. 

The  conclusion  arrived  at  from  an  inspection  of  these 
implements  and  articles  is,  that  they  were  the  stock-in- 
trade  of  a  coppersmith,  whose  forge  was  close  at  hand, 
but  the  explanation  of  their  connexion  with  the  public 
edifice,  near  which  they  were  discovered,  is  by  no  means 
clear.  They  are  well  and  skilfully  wrought.  One  of  the 
hatchets  particularly  attracted  my  notice,  being  of  the 
same  form  as  that  represented  on  the  tablet  of  the  man 
attacking  the  lion  ;t  the  articles  which  I  conceive  to  be 
dice-boxes,  precisely  resemble  those  of  modern  form  ; 
the  knives  were  all  adhering  together  en  masse,  their 
rough  broad  edges  proving  that  they  were  never  finished 
by  the  cutler.  The  total  absence  of  iron  in  the  older 
ruins  implies  that  the  inhabitants  were  unacquainted 
with  that  metal,  or  at  any  rate  that  it  was  seldom  worked. 
Many  of  the  copper  implements  above  enumerated  appear 
to  be  but  little  adapted  to  the  object  for  which  they  were 
fashioned.     Copper  was  particularly  used  in  the  Taber- 

*  The  whole  of  the  articles  obtained  from  Tel  Sifr  are  deposited  in  the 
Bi'itisli  Museum, 
t  See  woodcut,  page  258. 


270  TABLETS  IN  ENVELOPES. 

nacle"'  and  Temple  of  the  Jews,  and,  it  may  be,  that  this 
metal  was  specially  chosen  for  sacrificial  purposes,  which 
might  account  for  its  abundant  discovery  in  connexion 
with  the  edifice — a  temple — against  the  w^all  of  which 
the  implements  were  found.  At  any  rate,  the  entire 
absence  of  iron,  and  the  curious  shapes  of  many  articles, 
point  to  a  primitive  age  for  their  origin. 

The  actual  date  of  these  copper  objects  is,  however,  to 
be  inferred  from  that  of  the  "  enveloped"  clay  tablets 
which  were  found  close  to  them. 

These  records  were  arranged  with  much  care.  Three 
mud  bricks  were  laid  down  in  the  form  of  the  capital 
letter  U.  The  largest  tablet,  measuring  six-and-a-quarter 
inches  long  and  three  inches  wide,  was  placed  upon 
this  foundation,  and  the  two  next  in  size  at  right  angles 
to  it.  The  rest  were  piled  upon  them  and  also  upon 
the  bricks — the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  reed 
matting,  traces  of  which  were  still  visibly  adhering  to 
many  of  the  tablets.  They  were  covered  by  three  un- 
baked bricks,  which  accounts  for  the  perfect  preserva- 
tion of  so  many.  Several  were  found  broken,  but  the 
fragments  were  carefully  collected.  There  must  have 
been,  in  all,  about  one  hundred,  of  which  seventy  are 
either  quite  perfect  or  but  slightly  damaged. 

Each  tablet  was  inscribed  in  minute,  .complicated 
characters  of  Babylonian  cuneiform,  and  afterwards 
placed  in  an  envelope  of  the  same  material.  That  this 
thin  layer  of  unbaked  clay  should  have  remained  entire 
during  so  many  centuries  under  a  slight  covering  of  earth, 
appears  almost  incredible !      It  is  also  strange  that  the 

*  "  And  he  made  all  the  vessels  of  the  altar,  the  pots  and  the  shovels,  and 
the  basins,  and  the  flesh-hooks,  and  the  fire-pans :  all  the  vessels  thereof 
made  he  of  brass."  Exodus  xxxviii.  gives  a  full  account  of  the  altar  of 
burnt-offering  and  its  vessels — brass  being  the  principal  metal  employed. 
By  brass  we  must  understand  copper,  because  the  factitious  metal  was 
unknown  at  that  early  a^e 


TABLETS  IN  ENVELOPES. 


271 


envelope  had  infinitely  more  pains  bestowed  upon  it  than 
the  internal  record,  which,  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  was 


UnbaKed  Clay  Tablet  and  its  Envelope. 

the  important  document.  Upon  each  side  are  inscribed 
about  twenty  lines  of  inscription,  commencing  from  a 
broad  margin  on  the  left.  Along  the  margin  and  upon 
all  the  four  edges  of  the  envelope  are  distinct  impressions 
of  cylindrical  seals,  which  likewise  cover  the  whole  surface 
of  the  wi'iting.  The  woodcut  shews  one  of  the  tablets, 
with  a  portion  of  the  envelope  removed."^^ 

These  remarkable  tablets  have  not  been  critically 
examined,  so  that  I  am  unable  to  guess  at  the  reason  of 
the  envelope  having  so  much  more  elaborate  pains 
bestowed  upon  it  than  upon  the  tablet  itself.  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  pronounced  them,  after  a  cursory  examination, 
to  be  the  documents  of  private  persons  in  the  time  of  the 
Chaldsean  Kings  KJiammurabi  and  Shamsu-Iluna  (whose 
name  he  then  met  with  for  the^first  time),  about  1500  B.C., 
which  nearly  corresponds  with  the  date  of  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  upwards  of  three  thousand 
three  hundred  years  ago. 

•  The  broad  margin  and  surface  seals  are  not  exhibited  in  the  woodcut. 


272  FEMALE  EXCAVATOES. 

Yvisuf  s  excavations  were  much  more  lively  and  amus- 
ing than  such  works  generally  are.  Their  proximity  to 
the  Arab  camp  induced  a  number  of  the  Tuweyba 
women  and  children  to  gather  round  their  friends  and 
relations.  The  females  in  their  deep  blue  and  red  gowns 
sat  spinning  and  chattering  at  the  edge  of  the  trench,  and 
the  younger  part  of  the  community,  in  dress  of  nature's 
own  providing,  gamboled  round  them,  or  stood  watching 
when  any  object  was  being  minutely  examined. 

In  addition  to  the  enveloped  tablets  and  copper  arti- 
cles, Tel  Sifr  produced  a  third  novelty — two  girls  were 
carrying  baskets  of  earth  from  the  trench.  One,  a  very 
pretty  lass  of  sixteen  or  thereabouts,  had  begged  so  hard 
for  work  to  support  her  old,  infirm  mother  and  three 
young  brothers  and  sisters,  that  Yiisuf  could  not  resist 
the  appeal.  The  second  girl  was  jealous  of  the  first  one 
earning  money,  and  therefore  offered  her  services,  which 
Yusuf  accepted  in  order  to  countenance  the  other.  They 
were  great  favourites  among  the  men  who,  with  more 
kind  feeling  than  the  Arabs  usually  exhibit  towards  their 
women,  picked  out  for  them  the  smallest  baskets,  which 
they  never  wholly  filled.  I  observed  to  Yusuf  that  they 
carried  their  loads  with  infinitely  greater  ease  and  speed 
than  the  men,  and  that  they  discharged  three  baskets  of 
earth  while  the  men  lazily  emptied  but  two.  Yusuf 
grinned  and  declared  he  wished  all  his  labourers  were 
women,  because  they  were  not  only  quicker,  in  their 
movements,  but  more  manageable.  Much  merriment  was 
created  by  my  ordering  all  the  men  out  of  the  trench 
and  announcing  my  intention  to  employ  only  women  for 
the  future,  while  1  paid  a  /leserving  compliment  to  the 
ladies. 

A  few  days  after  this  little  excursion,  a  termination 
was  put  to  my  researches  amid  the  antiquities  of  Clial- 
dsea  by  events  over  which  I  had  no  control.     The  great 


TERMINATION  OF  CHALDEAN  RESEARCHES.  273 

mound  at  Sinkara  liad  yielded  a  series  of  liigbly  inter- 
esting historical  annals  in  its  bricks  and  cylinders,  and, 
there  being  reason  to  anticipate  the  discovery  of  much 
more  ancient  records  at  a  greater  depth,  I  was  anxious 
to  continue  the  excavations,  but  in  this  I  was  destined 
to  be  sadly  disappointed.  The  continued  rise  of  the 
marshes  from  the  overflowing  of  the  Shat-el-Kahr,  an- 
noimced  that  the  whole  of  Chaldaea  would  be  in  a  few 
weeks  covered  with  the  inundations,  and  warned  me  to 
effect  an  escape  while  it  was  possible  to  do  so.  The 
Arabs  foresaw,  in  the  rise  of  the  waters,  a  period  put  to 
the  acute  miseries  they  had  endm-ed  for  several  succes- 
sive seasons,  and  could  no  longer  be  restrained  from 
quitting  me  to  commence  the  cultivation  of  their  grounds 
before  they  were  submerged.  It  would  have  been  an 
act  of  cruelty  to  detain  them  longer.  Azayiz  and  Hen- 
na)dn,  Budda  and  a  few  inveterate  grave-diggers  alone 
remained  with  me,  and  it  was  evident  that  they  too 
desired  to  depart.  Tellag,  in  whom  my  hopes  of  con- 
tinuing the  excavations  might  have  rested,  came  to  in- 
form me  that  he  had  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the 
Beni  Hacheym  tribes  to  quit  the  ground  he  then  occupied 
near  Sinkara,  and  to  retire  across  the  Shat-el-Kahr 
further  into  the  Jezireh.  His  camels  had  abeady  de- 
parted for  their  new  pasture  grounds.  Thus  there  ap- 
peared every  likelikood  of  my  being  left  in  solitary  pos- 
session of  the  ruins,  because,  without  means  to  convey 
away  my  spoils,  I  was  unable  to  move.  My  provisions, 
moreover,  were  just  exhausted,  and  there  was  no  pros- 
pect, under  circumstances,  of  a  fresh  supply.  I  was,, 
therefore,  reluctantly  obliged  to  sacrifice  my  wishes  to 
absolute  necessity,  and  to  suspend  the  works  both  at 
Sinkara  and  Tel  Sifr. 

On  stating  my  dilemma  to  Tellag,  he  promised  to  send 
some  of  his  camels  back  again  for  my  acconmaodation, 

S 


274  THE  ADIEU. 

and  in  two  clays  he  not  only  redeemed  his  word,  bnt 
himself  returned  with  the  animals,  and  on  the  following 
morning  my  little  caravan  was  once  more  in  motion 
towards  the  Euphrates.  For  the  aid  he  had  rendered 
me,  Tellag  was  content  with  the  present  of  an  embroidered 
abba,  and  our  parting  em1:>race  was  one  of  mutual 
esteem.  The  friendship,  begim  under  very  unpropitious 
circumstances,  had  proved  of  infinite  value  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  my  plans,  and  I  therefore  took  leave  of 
my  Bedouin  protector  with  regret.  Such  of  my  work- 
men as  had  remained  faithful  from  the  commencement, 
were  rewarded  with  the  present  of  a  spade,  or  a  trifling 
Arab  coin.  They  had  not  anticipated  such  generosity, 
and  were  overwhelmed  with  gratitude  and  delight; 
Gunza  almost  cried  through  excess  of  joy,  and  exclaimed 
that,  with  the  sum  he  had  saved  and  what  I  then  gave 
him,  he  would  be  able  to  pay  a  debt  of  fifteen  shamies, 
and  have,  moreover,  three  to  spare !  As  I  mounted  my 
horse,  they  hung  round  me,  kissed  my  hands  and  gar- 
ments, and  clung  sorrowfully  to  my  stirrups.  Hastily 
bidding  them  adieu,  I  cantered  after  the  baggage.  On 
turning  round  at  some  distance  to  take  a  last  look  at  the 
mounds,  I  saw  the  party  sitting  on  the  ruins  of  the  temple 
of  Pharra, — and  there  they  continued  to  sit  until  their 
diminishing  forms  were  finally  lost  to  my  sight. 

Azayiz  and  Hennayin  being  desirous  of  preferring 
fiome  request  to  the  Governor  of  Semava  on  behalf  of  the 
Tuweyba  tribe,  accompanied  me  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates.  A  great  change  was  taking  place  in  the 
aspect  of  the  country ;  many  old  channels  and  water- 
courses, which  I  had  been  accustomed  to  see  empty 
and  dry,  were  now  rapidly  filling  with  river  water.  In 
many  spots  it  reached  up  to  my  saddle-girths,  proving 
the  propriety  of  the  step  I  had  taken  in  ending  the 
excavations.     Within  the  space  of  a  week,  or  less,  passage 


CHANGE  OF  SCENE.  275 

in  that  direction,  or  indeed  in  any  other,  would  have 
been  impracticable,  Hennayin,  as  he  walked  l:)y  my 
side,  broke  out  into  frequent  exclamations  of  delight  at 
the  sight  of  little  runners  of  the  vivifying  fluid  as  it 
trickled  along,  gradually  filling  the  canals.  "  Is  not  this 
a  beautifid  country  V  he  continually  exclaimed,  while 
he  looked  up  into  my  face  with  undoubted  signs  of 
gratification. 

In  anticipation  of  my  return,  two  native  vessels  were 
engaged  to  convey  my  party  and  treasures  to  Busrah. 
The  horses,  mules,  and  grooms  occupied  one,  while  the 
antiquities  were  stowed  away  in  the  second,  which  carried 
myself  and  immediate  attendants.  While  the  embarka- 
tion was  being  efiected,  I  was  in  full  enjoyment  of  the 
scene  before  me.  After  the  dust  and  barren  dreariness 
of  the  ruins,  nothing  could  exceed  the  beauty  and  luxury 
of  that  river  side  and  its  now  verdant  banks.  The  shouts 
and  squabbles  of  the  Arabs  about  the  daily  division  of 
their  pay  were  ceased,  and  in  their  stead  bee-eaters, 
king-fishers,  herons,  pigeons,  hawks,  and  other  birds,  in 
all  their  bright  and  varied  plumage,  were  flying  about, 
utterino;  their  several  cries,  and  luxuriatino;  in  their 
native  element,  scarcely  deigning  to  notice  the  presence 
of  human  beings. 

When  all  were  embarked,  I  bade  the  Tuweyba  chief 
and  his  brother-in-law  adieu, — the  cable  was  hauled  in, — 
the  sails  set  before  a  fair  wind, — and,  with  a  thousand 
invocations  to  God  and  Mohammed,  my  little  fleet  was 
wafted  rapidly  down  the  stream.  The  boats  used  by  the 
natives  for  the  navigation  of  the  Mesopotamian  rivers 
are  huge  clumsy  craft,  built  of  Indian  teak,  and  of  many 
tons  burden.  They  have  high  sterns,  with  cabin  and 
quarter-deck,  from  the  top  of  which  they  are  steered  by 
a  primitive  rudder,  composed  of  a  compKcated  system  of 
cross  spars,  roughly  tied  together.     Here  sits  the  captain, 


276  AN  ARAB  CAPTAIN  AND  HIS  VESSEL. 

giving  liis  orders  and  smoking  his  chibiik,  during  the 
livelong  day,  unless  disturbed  by  unforeseen  circum- 
stances from  his  wonted  calm ;  in  which  cases  he  rises, 
pipe  in  hand,  and  claims  implicit  obedience  from  his 
crew  by  the  utterance  of  a  torrent  of  abuse  in  richly- 
flowing  Arabic,  which  is  so  admirably  adapted  to  that 
purpose.  Each  vessel  is  supplied  with  a  single  tall  mast, 
and  huge  square  sail.  In  floating  down  the  stream,  or 
in  sailing  before  a  favourable  breeze,  the  ungainly  vessel 
goes  glibly  along ;  but  when  the  wind  is  foul,  or  the 
course  against  the  stream,  the  crew  strip,  floimder  to  the 
shore,  and  take  the  place  of  brute  beasts  at  the  tow-rope. 
The  crew  of  an  Arab  vessel  is  an  amphibious  race — quite 
as  much  in  the  water  as  out  of  it.  Deep  streams  have 
to  be  crossed,  or  shoals  avoided  in  their  tracking,  and 
many  an  hour  has  to  be  spent  in  shoving  their  craft  oft 
a  shallow  sand-bank.  The  life  of  a  Tigris  "tracker"  is 
as  hard  as  can  well  be  imagined. 

Cleanliness  is  unknown  in  the  cabin  of  an.  Arab 
vessel.  The  flooring,  sides,  and  ceiling  are  begrimed 
with  grease,  and  stained  with  smoke, — there  is  scarcely 
room  to  stand  upright, — the  boards  are  pierced  with  rats' 
holes,  and  small  vermin  issue  from  every  crevice.  Add 
to  these  annoyances,  the  incessant  creaking  of  the  im- 
wieldy  rudder  and  its  appliances, — the  intolerable  noise 
made  in  tacking, — the  frequent  prayers  to  Mohammed  for 
propitious  winds  and  weather,  mingled  with  wild  songs 
without  the  slightest  pretension  to  be  called  musical, — 
and  it  may  be  conceived  that  a  stranger  to  the  navigation 
of  the  Mesopotamian  rivers  passes  a  sleepless  and  dis- 
turbed first  night  on  board  an  Arab  vessel. 

Fortunately  the  wind  was  favourable,  so  that  we 
anchored  at  Siik-esh-sheioukh  soon  after  midnight,  by 
which  arrangement  there  was  a  A\'elcome  cessation  to, 
at  least,  the  noisy  portion  of  the  annoyances.     It  was 


SAIL  DOWN  THE  EUPHRATES.  277 

my  intention  to  have  paid  my  respects  to  the  Sheikh  of 
the  Muntefik,  and  to  have  thanked  him  for  the  pro- 
tection he  had  afforded  me ;  Ijut  the  captain  desired 
to  take  advantage  of  the  fair  wind  while  he  might. 
Quitting  our  anchorage  at  day  dawn,  we  sailed  at  a 
merry  rate  down  the  Euphrates,  and  in  two  hours  passed 
Umm-el-Buk — "the  Mother  of  Mosquitoes" — the  head 
of  the  vast  inundation  which  from  this  point  spreads  out 
in  every  direction  like  a  continuous  sea.  The  channel 
of  the  Euphrates  was  only  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
surrounding  water  by  a  narrow  strip  of  bank,  or  by  a 
line  of  date-trees  along  its  margin.  Here  and  there  the 
flood  might  be  seen  rushing  in  a  roaring  cascade  from 
the  river  into  the  marshes  beyond  it ;  at  such  points  all 
the  skill  of  the  captain  and  crew  was  required  to  prevent 
oui*  being  carried  through  the  break.  Tcrradas  were 
busily  employed  in  conveying  the  little  property  of  the 
Arabs  from  their  previous  settlements,  which  w^ere  being 
speedily  covered  by  the  increasing  waters.  Throughout 
the  day  the  same  monotonous  deluge  presented  itself; 
but  we  continued  on  our  course  without  intermission, 
at  midnight  passing  Korna,  where  the  stream  of  the 
Tigris  joins  that  of  the  Euphrates,  and  from  whence  their 
combined  waters  flow  onwards  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  under 
the  name  of  the  Shat-el-Arab.  A  thick  forest  of  luxuriant 
date-trees  frino-es  the  bank  on  either  side  of  the  noble 
river,  which  supplies  innumerable  canals  for  their  nourish- 
ment, and  for  the  cidtivation  of  cereals,  which  flourish 
in  large  quantities  even  beneath  the  shade  of  the 
palms.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  is  perceptible 
twenty  miles  above  Korna — quite  eighty  miles  from  the 
Persian  Gulf. 

At  noon  the  following  day,  two  of  my  horses  were  dis- 
embarked at  the  little  village  of  Girdelan,  opposite  to 
the  creek  which  flows  to  Busrah,  and,  with  a  single  ser- 


278  SAIL  DOWN  THE  EUPHRATES. 

vant,  I  rode  across  the  desert  to  Moliammerah.  The 
vessels  meanwhile  proceeded  on  their  course  to  meet  me 
in  the  Hafar  canal,  or  branch  of  the  Persian  river  K^riln, 
which  flows  past  that  city  towards  the  Shat-el-Ar4b.'"' 

*  The  collection  of  antiquities,  made  during  my  second  visit  to  Warka, 
was  despatched  from  hence  to  England  at  the  end  of  April  1850  ;  and  my 
report  on  the  subject,  accompanied  by  Mr  Churchill's  beautiful  drawings 
and  plans,  was  then  Ukewise  forwarded  to  the  British  Museum. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Mohammcrali — Intense  Heat — Sickness — Legion  of  Blood-suckers — 
Colony  of  Alexander  tlie  Great — Charax — The  Delta  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates — Disputes  between  the  Turks  and  Persians — The 
Chd'b  Arabs  and  thek  Territories. 

The  camps  of  the  Commissioners  for  the  demarcation 
of  the  Turco-Persian  frontier  were  pitched  in  the  open 
desert,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  from  the  date-groves, 
where  it  was  supposed  they  would  be  free  from  the 
miasma  arising  from  the  decomposition  of  noxious  matter 
during  the  period  of  low  tides.  From  the  account  given 
of  Mohammerah  by  Captain  Selby"''  in  his  Memoir  on  the 
Ascent  of  the  Karim  in  1842,  it  was  generally  supposed 
to  be  an  extremely  healthy  locality.  The  lengthened 
stay  which  the  Commissions  made  on  the  spot  proved, 
however,  the  contrary  to  be  the  case  :  continued  sick- 
ness pervaded  the  whole  four  camps  ;  food  could  not  be 
retained  upon  the  stomach  long  after  a  meal ;  and  a 
general  state  of  debility  naturally  ensued.  This  could 
not  be  attributed  to  the  style  of  living  ;  because  each 
party  followed  its  own  customs  : — the  Russians  took 
their  little  doses  of  cognac,  and  ate  their  national 
caviare, — the  English  abjured  fruit,  and  the  Orientals 
lived  upon  it.  Captain  Jones  and  the  officers  of  the 
Nitocris,  on  their  arrival  each  month  from  Baghdad, 
were  seized  with  the  same  complaint ;  every  meal  saw 
*  Journal  of  Royal  Geogr.  Soc,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  223. 


280  M  OH  A  M  M  ERAH. 

some  of  our  party  obliged  to  make  a  precipitate  retreat 
from  the  table ;   and  yet  no  one  was  seriously  ill. 

Besides  this  curious  endemic,  there  were  other  causes 
which  rendered  the  region  around  Mohammerah  by  no 
means  a  desirable  place  of  residence.  The  heat  was 
intense,  day  and  night, — in  June  rising  to  124°  Fahr. 
in  the  shade.  It  was  of  that  peculiarly  moist  nature 
which  prevails  on  the  sea-coast  of  India,  and  more 
especially  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  bathing 
the  clothes  in  a  continual  state  of  perspiration.  At 
Bdghdad  the  heat  is  great ;  but,  being  uninfluenced 
by  the  moisture  of  the  distant  sea,  the  atmosphere  is 
extremely  dry,  and  the  thermometer,  consequently,  much 
less  affected  than  at  Mohammerah.  Another  source  of 
disquietude  was  the  myriad  of  gigantic  mosquitoes 
which  about  sunset  issued  from  the  date-2:roves,  and  made 
a  violent  onslaught  upon  the  cnmps.  We  could  hear  them, 
in  the  distance,  approaching  with  an  intolerable  buzz,  and, 
in  a  few  seconds  afterw^ards,  it  was  no  uncommon  sight 
to  behold  a  party  at  dinner  rush  for  protection  to  the 
confined  atmosphere  of  the  tents.  No  one  could  endure 
the  virulence  of  their  bites, — our  light  clothing  was 
pierced  instantaneously  by  their  formidable  probosces, 
and  no  earthly  endurance  could  bear  the  torment  inflicted 
at  the  same  moment  on  the  sensitive  parts  of  the  body. 
Gloves  and  boots  were  of  no  avail, — thev  bored  throuo;h 
the  former  at  once,  and  found  their  way  over  the  tops  of 
the  latter.  Eesting  at  night  was  a  sheer  impossibility  ; 
under  a  net  was  the  heat  of  an  oven, — outside  of  it  a 
legion  of  blood-suckers. 

No  wonder  that  all  desired  a  speedy  release  from  the 
miseries  endured  at  this  Ultima  Tliule  of  the  frontier ;  but 
we  were  destined  long  to  hope  in  vain. 

Mohammerah  owes  its  foundation,  it  is  said,  to  Alexander 
the  Great.     In  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  sailing 


MOHAMMERAH.  281 

down  the  Eulseus  (the  modern  Kariin)  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  afterwards  coasting  up  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tigris,  he  caused  an  artificial  cutting  to  be  made  between 
the  two  rivers,  which  is  still  to  be  recognised  in  the  Hafar^' 
now  flowing  past  Mohammerah.  Previously  to  this,  the 
Kariin  appears  to  have  discharged  its  waters  by  one  or 
both  of  the  channels  called  Edior  Kobb^n  and  Khor 
Bahmeh-shir,t  through  a  low  promontory  into  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  site  of  Mohammerah  was  fixed  at  the  junction 
of  the  Eulseus  and  Tigris  upon  the  sea-shore.  At  this  point 
Alexander  built  an  artificial  mound,  and  transferred  to  it 
a  colony  from  the  ruined  Persian  city  of  Durine,  leaving 
a  garrison  of  those  soldiers  who  were  unfit  for  service. 
He  named  the  place  Alexandria  after  himself,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  called  Pellaeum  after  the  city  where 
he  was  born.  The  town  was  afterwards  destroyed  by  the 
invasion  of  the  rivers,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Antiochus, 
and  heuce  called  Antiochia.  It  was  again  ruined,  as  be- 
fore, and  a  third  time  restored  by  an  Arab  king  Spasines, 
son  of  Sogdonacus,  who  erected  great  dams,  wharves,  and 
causeways,  calling  it  after  himself,  Charax  of  Spasines. 

It  was  the  birthplace  of  Dionysius  the  geographer, 
whom  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus  sent  to  obtain  in- 
formation on  the  country  for  the  instruction  of  his  eldest 
son,  who  was  about  making  an  expedition  to  Armenia 
against  the  Parthians. 

The  province  of  Characine,  whose  capital  was  Charax, 
appears  to  have  especially  flourished  under  the  dominion 
of  the  sub-Parthian  kings.  The  British  Museum  pos- 
sesses several  remarkable  copper  coins  referred  to  the 
kings  of  that  province ;  they  bear  rude  Greek  legends,  in 

•  "  Hafdr,"  in  Arabic,  means  '*  digger." 

t  For  further  information  on  this  point,  I  would  refer  the  reader  to  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Geogr.  Society,  voL  xvi.  p.  55,  and  Macdonald  Kin- 
near,  p.  293. 


282  MOHAMMERAH — CHARAX. 

connexion  with  busts  of  j)eculiar  character,  diadems,  long 
peaked  curled  beards,  and  tlie  enormous  coiffures,  so 
characteristic  of  remains  from  Warka. 

Charax  was  named  Kerkhi  Misau,  and  Asterd,bM  by 
the  Sassanians,  and  jMaherzi  by  the  early  Arabs. 

The  site  is  highly  interesting  in  a  geological  as  well  as 
an  historical  point  of  view.  It  is  an  instance  of  an 
oceanic  delta  gaining,  wdth  almost  unprecedented  rapidity, 
upon  the  sea.  According  to  the  statement  of  Pliny,'"'  the 
original  site  of  Charax  w^as  two  thousand  paces  from  the 
shore,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  rapid  accumulation  of 
mud  annually  produced  by  the  rivers,  in  the  time  of  Juba 
II.,  king  of  Maiuitania  (25  B.C.),  it  stood  fifty  miles  in- 
land. There  is,  of  course,  much  exaggeration  in  Pliny's 
information ;  but,  if  we  take  the  trouble  of  comparing  the 
historical  accounts  of  the  early  Greek,  Latin,  and  Moham- 
medan authors,  the  increase  of  land  at  the  delta  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  may  be  distinctly  traced.  Since 
the  commencement  of  our  era  there  has  been  an  incre- 
ment at  the  extraordinary  rate  of  a  mile  in  about  seventy 
years,  which  far  exceeds  the  growth  of  any  existing  delta. 
This  rapid  increase  is  accounted  for  by  the  deposit  of  the 
river  mud  in  the  confined  basin  of  the  gulf,  w^here,  instead 
of  being  w^ashed  away  by  currents,  as  in  an  open  ocean, 
it  is  driven  back  by  the  returning  tide,  and  formed 
into  a  gently  shelving  bank,  perceptible  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  embouchure  of  the  rivers.  The 
comparatively  recent  formation  of  the  country  aroimd 
Mohammerah  is  evident  from  the  remains  of  fiuvia- 
tile  and  marine  shells,  which  occur  abundantly  upon  a 
soil  highly  impregnated  with  saline  efflorescences.  These 
semi-fossils  are  identical  W'ith  species  now  living  in  the 
adjacent  rivers  and  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  the  Per- 
*  Liber  vi.  27. 


MOHAMMEPAH  At^D  THE  CHA'B.  283 

sian  empire  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  tlie  assassina- 
tion of  the  great  Nadir  Shah,  the  Cha  b  Arabs,  from  the 
marshes  at  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  Eupln-ates, 
attacked  the  Persian  tribe  of  Afshar,  and  eventually  ex- 
pelled them  from  their  possessions  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Shat-el-Ar4b  and  Karun.  Kerim  Khan,  the  successor  of 
Nadir  Shah,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  regain  the  valuable 
territory,  was  compelled  to  abandon  it  to  its  new  occu- 
piers. Sheikh  Salman,  the  head  of  the  Cha'b  Arabs, 
aware  of  the  importance  of  the  position  thus  acquired, 
quickly  raised  a  fleet,  and  long  held  his  ground  against 
both  Turks  and  Persians,  making  piratical  attacks  on 
vessels  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  among  which  he  succeeded  in 
capturing  some  British  vessels.  Tribute,  or  rather  pish- 
kash  (present),  is,  however,  now  exacted  from  the  Cha'b, 
whenever  the  Shah  or  his  provincial  governors  possess 
sufficient  force  for  the  purpose,  and  the  amount  varies  in 
ratio  to  the  power  exercised. 

The  value  of  Mohammerah  as  a  commercial  position 
was  established  by  Sheikh  Thiimir,  the  great-grandson  of 
Salman,  who  opened  it  as  a  free  port,  thereby  inflicting 
serious  damage  on  the  revenues  of  the  Turkish  customs  at 
Busrah:  hence  arose  the  dispute  concerning  the  place 
between  the  Turks  and  Persians.  'Ali  Pasha  findino-  his 
income  considerably  diminished,  determined  on  attacking 
the  enterprising  sheikh  ;  an  expedition  was  consequently 
fitted  out,  and  the  town,  with  all  its  valuable  contents, 
destroyed.  The  Persians  being  naturally  under  obliga- 
tion to  support  the  sheikh,  and  defend  what  they  re- 
garded as  Persian  soil,  the  dispute  waxed  warm  between 
the  two  powers,  and  the  chief  of  the  Cha'b,  meanwhile, 
assumed  a  very  independent  position,  although  nominally 
under  the  Turks.  His  place  of  residence  was  at  Fellahiyya, 
but  the  custody  of  Mohammerah  was  consigned  to  Sheikh 
Ja'ber,  who  acted  as  his  agent,  and  gradually  acquired 


284  MOHAMMERAH  AND  THE  CHa'b. 

au  enormous  fortune.  On  tlie  death  of  Sheikh  Thdmir,  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Faris,  the  present  head  of  the 
Ch^'b,  and  Sheikh  Ja'ber  has  raised  himself  to  be  almost 
independent  of  his  natural  chief. 

By  the  treaty  of  Erzeriim,  however,  it  was  agreed  that 
Mohammerah  should  be  finally  made  over  to  the  Per- 
sians ;  but,  on  its  being  proposed,  when  the  Commis- 
sioners met  upon  the  spot,  to  carry  out  the  spirit  of  the 
treaty,  an  unexpected  difficulty  presented  itself.  The 
Turkish  Commissioner,  in  most  lawyer-like  manner, 
argued,  like  Portia  in  the  Merchant  of  Venice, 

"  This  bond  doth  give  thee  here  no  jot  of  blood  ; 
The  words  expressly  are,  a  pound  of  flesh. 
Then  take  thy  bond — take  thou  the  pound  of  flesh." 

According  to  the  letter  of  the  deed,  he  was  content  to 
deliver  up  the  town,  but  not  an  inch  of  the  surrounding 
territory.  Here,  however,  the  similitude  ended.  Con- 
ference followed  conference  on  this  momentous  question. 
Dervish  Pasha  stood  his  ground,  and  would  consent  to 
no  other  terms  ;  whereupon  Mirza  Jafer  Khan  instigated 
Sheikli  Ja'ber  to  raise  the  Persian  flag  upon  the  walls  of 
Mohammerah.  Thus  there  was  danger,  at  the  very 
outset  of  the  Commissioners'  assembling,  that  the  whole 
affair  would  fall  to  the  ground,  and  bring  about  a  recom- 
mencement of  hostilities.  Fortunately,  European  counsel 
was  listened  to ;  the  obnoxious  flag  was  removed,  the 
point  at  issue  referred  to  the  four  governments  for 
decision,  and  it  was  ultimately  resolved  that  a  careful 
survey  should  be  taken  of  the  whole  frontier  line,  and 
that  all  disputed  questions  should  be  left  for  future 
discussion. 

In  its  present  state,  Mohammerah  consists  of  a  wretched 
assemblage  of  huts,  containing  about  three  hundred 
families,  and  is  tolerably  furnished  with  bazaars.  On  the 
settlement  of  the  pending  controversy,   the  place  will, 


THE  CHA'b  ARABS.  28  J 

from  its  naturally  advantageous  position,  soon  become 
the  great  emporium  of  commerce  between  India,  Turke}', 
and  the  south-western  provinces  of  Persia ;  but,  under 
the  present  aspect  of  afltiirs,  there  is  little  immediate 
prospect  of  its  advancement. 

Sheikh  Ja'ber  is  a  shrewd  calculating  Arab,  far  be- 
yond his  race  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  Possessed 
of  several  vessels,  he  carries  on  an  extensive  trade 
with  Muscat  and  Bombay,  and  can  bring  into  the  field  a 
considerable  force  of  horsemen  and  musketeers.  His 
riches  and  influence  are  so  great,  that,  in  case  of  a  mis- 
understanding with  his  superior,  Sheikh  Ja'ber  would 
be  a  formidable  rival  for  the  chieftainship  of  the  whole 
tribe. 

The  Cha'b  Arabs  are  a  tall,  warlike  race,  with  swarthy 
countenances,  and  an  expression  which  denotes  a  strong 
infusion  of  Persian  blood.  In  dress,  they  rather  adopt 
the  Persian  than  the  Arab  costume.  The  national  black 
and  white  striped  abba  is  thrown  over  the  blue  cotton 
tunic  and  short  drawers  of  the  Persian,  while  an  ample 
black  turban,  tied  in  the  peculiar  fashion  of  Shuster  and 
Dizfiil,  shields  the  Adsage  from  the  sun.  Each  man 
caixies  an  immense  long  musket  slung  over  his  shoulder, 
a  sword,  and  round  target  of  tough  bull's  hide,  studded 
with  large  copper  nails  or  bosses.  They  are  a  brave,  but 
cruel  race,  far  inferior  to  the  Bedouin  in  every  manly 
and  noble  quality. 

The  district  occupied  by  the  Cha'b  Arabs  constitutes 
the  largest  part  of  the  Persian  province  of  Khiizistan, 
"  the  land  of  sugar  " — the  name  being  derived  from  the 
cultivation  of  that  plant,  which  was  extensively  carried 
on  here  in  former  times.  It  is,  however,  usually  deno- 
minated Ar^bistan,  from  its  inhabitants. 

The   Cha'b"''*  extend   from  the  Persian    Gulf,    on  the 

•  For  a    detailed    account    of   tliis  laige    tribe,  consult    Mr    Layard's 


286  SULEYMAN  KHAN. 

south,  to  an  imaginary  northern  line,  drawn  from  the 
Shat-el-Arab  above  Bnsrali,  to  the  Kariin,  midway 
between  Ahwaz  and  Ismaill,  forming  a  junction  with  the 
tribes  of  the  Beni  Ldm  and  W411  of  Hawiza, — thence  the 
line  follows  the  left  bank  of  the  Kdrun,  to  a  point  above 
the  village  of  Wais.  From  this,  the  eastern  boundary 
extends  along  the  Zeytiin  Hills  to  the  river  Hindiyyan,  and 
down  its  course  to  the  sea.  On  the  w€st,  they  possess  a 
small  strip  of  land  upon  the  farther  bank  of  the  Shat-el- 
Arab,  from  its  mouth  to  near  the  town  of  Busrah. 

During  the  early  part  of  our  mission,  Khtizistan  Avas 
governed  by  a  Georgian  Christian,  named  Suleyman 
KJi^n,  whose  justice  and  moderation  rendered  him  a 
general  favourite  with  all  classes  of  his  subjects.  Not- 
withstanding their  fanatical  dispositions,  and  his  despised 
religion,  they  were  eloquent  in  his  praise ;  and  it  spoke 
well  for  the  feelino;s  of  all  classes — from  the  Sh^h  to  the 
Arab  cultivator — that  a  Christian  governor  should  be 
tolerated  in  the  most  fanatical  of  all  Mohammedan 
countries.  In  my  own  intercourse,  however,  with  the 
Persians,  I  did  not  always  meet  with  the  same  toleration  ; 
and  I  can  only  account  for  their  endurance  of  Suleyman 
Khan  in  consequence  of  his  sterling  qualities,  and,  above 
aU,  of  the  Shah's  supreme  will. 

admirable  memoir  "  On  the  Province  of  Khtizistdn,"  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  36,  et  seq. ;  and  likewise  Baron  de 
Bode's  "Travels  in  Ldristdn  and  Ardbistdn,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  110. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Setting  out  for  Susa — The  Siilky  Ferryman — Coffee-cups  and  Infidels — 
Ahwaz — A  False  Alarm — Shuster — Dilapidation  and  Dirt — Shapur 
and  the  Captive  Emperor  Valerian — Their  Grand  Hydraulic  Works 
— Festivities  at  Shuster — Tea — The  Forbidden  Beverage — Climate 
of  Shuster — Failure  in  Diplomacy. 

As  soon  as  my  collection  of  antiquities  obtained  at 
Warka  was  despatched  to  England,  Colonel  Williams 
desired  me  to  visit  Susa,  and  endeavour  to  make  excava- 
tions at  the  mounds  which  are  well  known  to  exist  at 
that  locality.  I  was  particularly  instructed  to  be  careful 
in  my  dealings  with  the  natives,  and  to  desist  from  any 
attempt  at  carrying  out  the  project,  if  it  were  productive 
of  opposition  from  any  quarter.  As  the  ruins  had  never 
been  surveyed,  it  was  desirable  that  a  plan  should  be  at 
once  made,  which  might  be  turned  to  account  in  the 
event  of  researches  being  made  on  the  spot.  ]\Ir  Churchill, 
my  companion  on  the  previous  journey  through  Meso- 
potamia, gladly  availed  himself  of  the  permission 
accorded  to  him  of  joining  me  in  the  expedition,  and  I 
was  only  too  delighted  to  take  advantage  of  his  knowledge 
of  the  language,  and  his  agreeable  society. 

Letters  were  furnished  me  by  the  British  and  the 
Persian  Commissioners  to  Suleyman  Khan  and  the 
authorities  at  Shuster  and  Dizful — the  two  great  Persian 
cities  in  the  plains  of  Arabistan.  Mirza  Jafer  Khdn 
likewise  sent  one    of  his    own   glioliims  to   guide,   and 


288  UNCIVIL  EECEPTIOX  AT  ISMAlLf. 

to  ensure  us  a  certain  degree  of  respect  from  his  country- 
men. Tlius  provided  we  once  UKjre  Lid  adieu  to  our 
friends,  and  set  out  on  our  travels,  delighted  beyond 
measure  to  escape  from  the  feverish  heat  and  debilitating 
atmosphere  of  Mohamraerah. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  intensity  of  the  sun,  it  was 
necessary  to  start  early,  so  as  to  rest  for  a  few  hours  at 
noon,  and  again  resume  the  journey  when  the  heat  had 
somewhat  abated.  Our  general  course  was  north-easterly, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Karun,  but,  during  our  first  day's 
ride,  we  only  touched  upon  it  at  a  single  point,  and  again 
took  the  direct  route,  sleeping  at  night  upon  the  arid 
floor  of  the  desert.  On  the  foUowino-  mornino;  we  once 
more  reached  the  river  at  a  ruined  tomb  called  Imam 
Seba',  enshrouded  in  a  deep  grove  of  date-trees ;  the 
banks  of  the  Karun  beino;  also  frino;ed  with  a  thick  forest 
of  fine  tamarisks,  which  gradually  sloped  to  the  river  brink. 

At  mid-day  we  arrived  opposite  to  the  Arab  village  of 
Ismaili,  where  a  ferry-boat  is  established  for  passengers. 
Whether  the  Arabs  were  taking  their  siesta,  or  whether 
they  were  indisposed  to  move  instantaneously  at  the  beck 
of  every  traveller  who  might  present  himself  at  the 
water's  edge,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  but,  notwithstanding  aU 
our  shouting,  threats,  entreaties,  and  firing  of  pistols,  the 
Charon  of  Ismaili  refused  to  appear.  Having  no  other 
alternative  but  to  wait  the  pleasure  of  that  worthy,  an 
awning  was  hastily  raised,  under  which  we  fell  asleep  to 
while  away  the  time.  Patience  always  has  its  reward ; 
so  in  this  case,  after  waiting  four  hours,  a  man  paddled 
over  the  stream  in  a  small  boat  to  ascertain  wdiat  we 
wanted,  although  he  might  have  heard  every  word  spoken 
by  us  on  the  opposite  side.  A  messenger  was  then  sent 
across  to  the  sheikh  to  say  that  we  carried  letters  from 
the  Elchi  (ambassador)  at  Mohammerah  to  the  governor 
of  the  province,  and  that  the  ferry-boat  must  be  sent  over 


BIGOTRY,  289 

without  farther  delay.  After  levelling  some  abuse  at 
Christians,  Charon  at  length  appeared  with  a  large  hulk, 
into  which  the  baggage  was  tumbled,  ourselves  taking  up 
a  position  on  the  top  of  the  pile.  The  horses  and  mules 
swam  the  river,  and  the  whole  party  was  soon  landed  in 
safety  on  the  left  bank  below  the  village. 

The  sheikh  probably  thought  he  had  carried  his  dis- 
respect too  far,  and  now  came  out  on  a  beautiful  mare  to 
receive  his  guests ;  but  we  took  no  notice  of  him.  Not 
until  we  had  made  all  the  necessary  arrangements  about 
the  pitching  of  our  tents  and  disposal  of  the  baggage,  did 
we  deign  to  tell  him,  in  the  hearing  of  his  joeojDle,  that 
the  elchi  should  be  informed  of  our  un courteous  reception. 
His  excuse  was  that  he  was  not  aware  we  were  waiting 
for  the  boat,  and  that  the  ferryman  could  not  be  found. 
After  several  refusals,  we  at  length  condescended  to 
accompany  him  to  his  hut.  We  were  then  conducted  to 
a  dirty  yard,  where,  under  the  scanty  shade  of  a  few 
boughs,  sat  a  party  of  filthy  Cha'b,  unwilling  to  shew  the 
slightest  respect  to  the  Christian  strangers  until  the  sheikh 
requested  them  to  rise.  Then,  and  then  only,  they  made 
a  feint  of  getting  up  from  their  greasy  mats.  Coffee  was 
made  and  handed  in  a  cracked  cup,  with  a  large  piece  out 
of  the  edge,  from  wliich  we  both  drank.  It  had  been 
purposely  chosen,  for  no  sooner  was  it  carried  to  the  door 
than  it  was  broken  to  pieces,  being  pronounced  "  nedjis," 
"  unclean"  from  having  touched  our  infidel  lips  !  It  Avas 
impossible  to  resist  the  temptation  of  saying  that  washing 
Avould  have  had  equal  effect,  and  that  then  the  exj»ense 
of  a  new  cup  would  have  been  spared  to  the  sheikh's 
pocket !  Such  was  our  reception  by  our  first  Persian 
hosts. 

Our  third  day's  journey  extended  to  Ahwaz  ;  during 
it  we  caught  the  first  glimpse  of  the  distant  mountains, 
with  their  continuous  undulating  line,  void  of  speak  or 


290  VEGETATION  OP  THE  GRAVEL  PLAINS. 

of  any  prominent  features ;  but  the  breeze  which  blew 
from  them  was  cool  and  invigorating.  As  we  now 
quitted  the  saliferous  alluvium  of  the  lower  plains,  and 
entered  upon  the  gravel  and  sandstone  beds  of  the  ter- 
tiary rocks,  a  considerable  change  was  perceptible  in  the 
character  of  the  vegetation  ;  the  tamarisk  was  becoming 
less  plentiful,  and  its  place  was  occupied  by  large  bushes 
of  the  sidr,  or  kon^r,  with  its  pretty  red  berries.  The 
soil,  too,  was  covered  with  widely  scattered  blades  of 
scorched  yellow  grass ;  and  on  the  bank  of  the  Karun,  about 
two  miles  from  Ahwaz,  were  four  large  trees,  resembling 
the  oak  in  form,  and  fifty  feet  high.  They  bore  small 
oval,  tough,  leaves,  and  were  in  full  bloom,  with  large 
yellow  flowers  resembling  a  foxglove,  but  much  larger, 
and  referable  to  Tetrandria  Monogynia.  I  gathered 
several  specimens  for  my  herbarium,  but,  before  I  could 
overtake  the  caravan,  the  heat  destroyed  them.  The 
same  species  of  tree  never  again  occurred  to  me,  nor  was 
I  ever  able  to  ascertain  its  native  name. 

Sheikh  Ibbara,  of  Ahwaz,  shewed  himself  to  be  more 
civilized  and  hospitable  than  the  cup-breakers  at  Ismail! 

Ahwaz  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Karim  at  the 
base  of  a  range  of  reddish  sandstone  and  gravel-con- 
glomerate hills,  which  bear  in  a  south-east  direction 
towards  Zeytun.  This  range  is  the  principal  outlier  of 
the  great  mountains,  and  may  hkewise  be  traced  in  the 
opposite  direction  across  the  Karun  towards  Hawiza,  and 
from  thence  to  the  east  of  ]MendeK.  It  finally  rises  into 
a  considerable  range  called  the  Hamrin,  and  crosses  the 
Tigris  below  the  junction  of  the  Little  Zab  with  the 
larger  river. 

Ahwaz  is  celebrated  for  the  massive  bimd,  or  dam,  which, 
below  the  town,  obstructs  the  free  naviQ;ation  of  the 
river.  This  bund  is  a  natural  barrier  formed  by  the 
continuation  of  the  sandstone  beds  of  the  range  above 


AHWAZ — AGINIS.  29 1 

mentioned,  further  strengthened  and  enlarged  by  an 
artificial  wall,  portions  of  which  are  still  remaining 
entire,  while  the  remainder  has  been  washed  away  by 
the  force  of  the  stream.  One  of  the  three  openings  was 
navigated  by  Captain  Selby  in  the  H.E.I.C.  steam-vessel 
Assyria,  but  the  others  are  shallow.  The  artificial  masonry 
was  doubtless  erected  for  the  purpose  of  diverting  a 
portion  of  the  stream  into  canals  on  either  side  above 
the  bund,  which  acted  as  the  bank  of  a  reservoir,  and 
raised  the  water  to  the  required  level.  Above  the  town 
is  the  dry  bed  of  a  wide,  ancient  canal,  called  Nahr-el- 
Bahara,  which  flowed  past  FelMhiyya  and  joined  the 
river  Jerrahi  at  Bender.  Its  bed  is  now  a  corn-field. 
When  the  artificial  dam  existed,  and  there  was  a  super- 
abundance of  water  in  the  reservoir,  it  was  got  rid  of  by 
means  of  tunnels  cut  through  the  rocks  on  the  left  bank, 
which  again  conveyed  it  to  the  main  stream  below  the 
bund.  Here,  on  the  right  bank,  is  another  dry  channel, 
supposed  by  some  travellers  to  be  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Eulseus,  by  which  Alexander  the  Great  sailed  from 
Susa  to  the  sea. 

The  ancient  city  of  Aginis  is  said  to  have  occupied 
the  site  of  Ahw^z.  Extensive  ruins  occur  along  the 
base  of  the  sandstone  range,  and  are  reported  to  extend 
a  distance  of  two  days'  journey.  In  the  ascent  from  the 
modern  town  are  to  be  seen  a  number  of  fallen  coliunns, 
quarried  from  the  stone  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  a 
quantity  of  debris  from  various  decayed  edifices.  The 
solid  rock,  at  some  period  or  another,  has  been  cut  in 
many  places,  and  the  remains  of  excavated  chambers  are 
abundant.  Wherever  an  abrupt  surface  of  rock  is  ex- 
posed, it  has  been  rudely  scarped  and  ornamented.  In 
aU  directions  are  rock  tombs,  accessible  by  means  ot 
steps,  and  due  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  Arab  conquest 
of  Persia;  but  at  the  base  of  the  rocks  are  sepulchres 


292  THE  KARtJN. 

of  later  date — large  stone  slabs  lie  horizontally  on  the 
ground,  ornamented  with  a  Saracenic  arch,  and  having 
at  the  lower  extremity  a  small  channel  to  allow  the 
rain  to  escape  from  the  surface.  Around  the  arch  are 
much- weathered  Kufic  inscriptions.  From  the  highest 
point  of  the  range,  the  view  of  these  burial  places  has  a 
remarkably  curious  effect,  and  is  well  worthy  of  the  tra- 
veller's attention. 

From  Ahwaz  our  next  stage  was  to  Bender-ghil,  pass- 
ing by  the  way  the  small  Ai-ab  village  of  Wais,  where 
the  whole  population  was  busily  engaged  with  the  har- 
vest ;  men  and  boys,  cows  and  donkeys  were  assiduously 
treading  out  the  corn,  of  which  there  was  an  abundant 
supply.  Above  Wais  the  Karun  flows  through  a  light 
alluvial  soil,  admirably  suited  for  the  cultivation  of 
grain,  although  it  is  to  be  doubted  if  the  farmers  of 
Wais  were  aware  of  the  fact. 

The  river  Karun  is  divided  at  Shuster  into  two 
branches,  which  again  meet  at  Bender-ghil  after  a  course 
of  about  thirty  miles.  The  eastern  branch  is  called  the 
A'b-i-Gargar,  and  flows  in  a  milk-white  stream  through 
an  artificial  channel.  The  western  branch  is  the  origi- 
nal bed  of  the  river,  and  takes  the  appellation  of  Shuteyt ; 
the  colour  of  its  stream  is  reddish,  and  its  velocity 
greater  than  the  Alb-i-Gargar.  At  Bender-ghil,  likewise, 
is  the  mouth  of  the  Dizful  river,  which  pours  its  red. 
turbid  waters  into  the  Shuteyt,  leaving  a  deposit  of  red 
mud  below  the  village,  upon  the  island  formed  by  the 
two  streams  of  the  Karun.  For  a  considerable  distance 
below  the  junction  of  the  rivers,  the  milky  water  of  the 
A'b-i-Gargar  refuses  to  mingle  cordially  with  its  fellows ; 
but,  before  arriving  at  Wais,  the  Karun  has  partaken  of 
the  turbid  character  of  the  Diz,  which  it  retains  through- 
out the  remainder  of  its  course  to  the  sea. 

Bender-ghil   is   a   wretched    place,    containing   forty 


THE  ANAPIYYA — FALSE  ALARM.  293 

houses,  entirely  supported  ])y  the  trattic  produced  by  its 
ferry — httle  enough  in  all  conscience.  From  hence  our 
route  lay  over  a  pretty  undulating  country.  A  ripe 
grass  of  rich  golden  hue  clothed  the  surface,  which  was 
plentifully  studded  with  greeii  kon^r  trees,  affording  not 
only  a  deep  contrast  for  the  eye,  but  a  welcome  shade 
for  the  whole  person  of  the  traveller.  Espying  a  large 
mound  on  oiu-  right  hand,  we  made  a  detour  to  visit  it, 
under  the  impression  that  it  was  portion  of  the  ruins 
said  to  stand  on  the  bank  of  the  A'b-i-Gargar.  We 
were,  however,  mistaken  in  our  surmise,  and  had  the 
trouble  of  wading  through  roughly-ploughed  ground, 
which  yielded  an  abundant  crop  of  prickly  thistles, 
making  ourselves  and  horses  wince  with  pain.  AVhile 
carefidly  picking  our  way  through  the  army  of  lances 
opposing  our  progress,  a  black  flag  was  suddenly  hoisted 
on  our  right,  and,  shortly  afterwards,  a  strong  party  of 
horsemen  with  large  tufted  spears  advanced  to  meet  us 
from  one  direction,  while,  from  another,  a  little  army  of 
half-naked  Anafi}^a  Arabs,  Avho  occupy  the  island,  cut 
off  our  retreat ;  the  latter  were  armed  with  swords  and 
guns  slung  over  their  tawny  shoulders,  and  came  on 
rapidly,  preceded  by  a  man  carrying  a  piece  of  black 
tenting  on  a  pole.  Yells  and  war-dances  were  rendered 
exquisite  by  the  additional  excitement  imparted  by  the 
thistles.  It  afterwards  appeared  that  they  were  in  daily 
expectation  of  an  attack  from  their  mountain  neighbours, 
the  Bakhtiyari,  and,  seeing  us  u^Don  the  mound  far  away 
from  the  beaten  track,  they  made  certain  their  enemies 
were  upon  them.  How  surprised  they  must  have  been 
to  meet  two  peaceful  Englishmen  with  umbrellas  instead 
of  muskets  in  their  hands!  The  horsemen  were,  of 
course,  first  to  reach  us  ;  they  were  all  well  armed  with 
spear  and  leathern  shield,  and  presented  an  imposing 
and   picturesque   front   as   they  rode   up,   on   valuable 


294  THE  ANAFfYYA. 

mares,  headed  by  tlicir  sheikh  Husseyn  and  his  big- 
tufted  spear.  Notwithstaudiug  the  unnecessary  alarm 
we  had  occasioned  them,  he  gave  us  a  kindly  welcome, 
and  rode  back  with  us  to  his  camp.  One  of  the  Arab 
party  was  questioned  as  to  the  force  his  tribe  could 
muster,  when  he  readily  answered,  "  nine  hundred  foot- 
men and  three  hundred  horse."  Then  riding  up  to  the 
sheikh's  side,  he  asked  if  he  had  replied  satisfactorily. 
"Yes,  pretty  well!"  said  Husseyn;  "you  might  have 
said  more,  but  never  mind,  it  will  do  tolerably  well." 
The  fact  was,  that  a  third  of  the  number  would  have 
been  ample !  We  encamped  during  the  heat  of  the  day 
within  a  few  yards  of  his  tent,  and  received  from  the 
sheikh  the  present  of  a  lamb,  in  proof  of  his  friendship 
and  goodwill. 

A  further  ride  of  three  short  hours  brought  the  party 
to  Imam  Kaf-'Ali,  a  whitened  sepulchre  on  a  little  ele- 
vation, which  overlooks  the  town  of  Shiister  with  its 
mosque  and  numerous  tombs  of  holy  men — all  painted 
white,  and  contrasting  in  the  most  marked  degree  with 
the  piles  oi  rubbish  and  filth  around  them.  The  most 
distant  object  is  the  old  castle  overlooking  the  Shuteyt, 
and  the  nearest  is  a  series  of  gardens,  partially  con- 
cealino-  low  mounds  and  ruins,  the  remains  of  a  more 
ancient  city.  The  first  sight  of  Sinister  is  by  no  means 
an  interesting  or  beautiful  scene,  for,  even  in  the  dis- 
tance, ruin  and  decay  are  the  principal  features,  afford- 
ing too  correct  a  picture  of  its  wretched  condition. 

The  precincts  of  the  place  are  entered  from  the  south 
by  the  Puli  Lascar,  whose  low  arches  span  a  dry  canal ; 
near  it  we  were  introduced  to  the  tomb  of  Imam-zada 
Abdulla,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  specimens  of 
ugly,  mis-shapen  architecture  which  any  Mohammedan 
city  can  produce.  Its  squat  building  was  surmounted 
by  an  enormously  elongated  cone,  resembling  a  huge  ex- 


SH(JSTER.  295 

tinguislier.  On  either  side  was  a  tall  minaret,  with 
gallery  to  the  summit,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a 
large  candlestick  with  the  candle  just  burned  to  the 
socket.  To  render  them  more  conspicuous,  the  promi- 
nent features  were  glaring  white. 

The  town  appeared  as  though  an  earthquake  had 
recently  occurred,  the  bazaars,  once  so  famous,  were  de- 
serted, and  the  houses  were  apparently  in  the  act  of  fall- 
ing on  the  inhabitants,  many  being  merely  heaps  of 
bricks.  Ruin !  ruin !  ruin !  was  the  prevailing  character 
d  the  Persian  seat  of  government  in  Ai'^bistan,  which 
presented  a  worse  picture  of  depopulation  than  either 
Baghdad  or  Busrah.  But  there  had  been  no  earthquake, 
no  recent  attack  from  the  foe;  what  we  saw  was  the 
result  of  continued  misgovernment,  over-taxation,  and 
internal  feuds.  Shiister  is  the  abode  of  many  noble 
families,  constantly  drawing  the  sword  upon  each  other. 
Every  quarter  has  its  own  chief,  who  is  surrounded,  by 
his  followers,  ready  at  any  moment  to  attack  their  neigh- 
bours. The  influence  of  the  Persian  government  is 
only  maintained  by  keeping  up  a  feeling  of  hostility 
among  the  various  clans — for  so  the  difierent  parties 
may  be  called.  Frequently,  however,  the  antagonism, 
which  it  seeks  to  promote,  is  turned  against  its  own 
lieutenant,  and  the  governor  of  Arabistan  is  at  times 
obliged  to  defend  himself  vi  et  armis,  or  by  an  ignomini- 
ous flight.  No  great  outbreak  had  occurred  for  the 
previous  three  years,  so  that  we  saw  the  city  on  its  best 
behaviour,  with  a  disposition  to  be  tranquil,  until  some 
unexpected  and  unforeseen  circumstance  should  arise  to 
fan  the  latent  fire.  Persian  cities  generally  are  not 
remarkable  for  cleanliness  ;  but  of  all  that  the  traveller 
ever  visits,  Shiister — and,  I  may  add,  Dizful — are  the  ne 
plus  ultra  in  this  respect.  Dogs  are,  of  course,  the 
scavengers  in  all  Oriental   towns  ;  but  they  decline  to 


206  THE  NATIVES  OF  SHt'STER  AND  DTZFtJL. 

cleanse  the  streets  of  the  twin  capitals  of  Ardl)istan  ! 
Spouts,  projecting  halt-way  across  the  narrow  lanes,  dis- 
charge the  night  soil  from  the  house  tops.  There  the 
foul  mass  lies  unnoticed,  contaminating  the  air,  and  dif- 
fusing fevers,  cholera,  and  disease,  being  only  removed 
by  the  heavy  rains  of  spring,  or  thrown  to  one  side  and 
covered  with  fresh  earth  on  the  arrival  of  some  great 
visitor  whom  it  delights  the  governor  thus  to  honour  ! 
It  is  impossible  to  walk  through  the  streets  ;  and.  in 
riding,  good  navigation  is  required  to  escape  the  down- 
pom-ings  from  the  spouts  ! 

Indigo  is  much  cultivated  at  Shijster  and  Dizful ;  hence 
it  is  that  the  prevailing  colour  worn  by  the  natives  is  blue. 
Blue  cotton  tmiics  girded  round  the  waist  with  a  shawl  ; 
shalwas,  or  trousers,  of  the  same  colour  and  material  ; 
and  tawny  complexions,  well  stained  with  the  dye,  meet 
one  at  every  comer.  The  usual  cuUah,  or  tall  lamb-skin 
cap  of  the  Persian,  is  seldom  worn  here  ;  but  the  ordinary 
head-dress  of  the  people  consists  oi  a  long  piece  of  black 
stuflf  wound  round  the  brow,  one  end  being  puckered  up 
in  front,  like  the  feather  of  a  Highlander's  bonnet,  while 
the  other  hangs  down  the  back,  in  imitation  of  the 
streamers  which  were  used  by  the  Parthians  and  Sass- 
anians.  Excepting  a  thick  felt  skull-cap,  and  short 
drawers  which  cover  the  hips  and  thighs,  boys  run  about 
entirely  naked.  The  countenances  of  the  inhabitants  are 
not  prepossessing; — low  cunning,  deceit,  and  mistrust 
being  universal  among  the  lower  classes.  These  towns 
are  the  gathering-places  of  priests  and  Seyids,  or  de- 
scendants of  the  Prophet,  the  fanatical  expression  of  whose 
features  —  overshadowed  by  white  and  green  turbans 
in  ample  folds  —  proclaims  intense  bigotry  and  hatred 
of  all  races,  sects,  and  religions  but  their  own.  The 
aristocracy,  however,  boasts  of  some  well-informed  and 
hberal  men,  whom  it  would  be  imfair  to  include  among 


VALERIAN  AND  SHAPtJR.  297 

tlie  vulgar  herd.  The  hospitahty  and  attention  displayed 
by  them  during  our  three  days'  stay  left  a  favourable 
impression  on  our  minds,  which  was  not  effaced  during 
subsequent  visits. 

Of  the  primitive  history  of  Sh\ister  we  know  nothing, 
researches  not  havino-  been  made  in  the  surroundino; 
ruins.  By  some  authors  it  is  regarded  as  the  site  of 
"  Shushan  the  Palace,"  where  the  stirring  scenes  con- 
nected withthe  life  of  Esther  are  stated  to  have  taken  place. 
These,  however,  as  will  be  hereafter  seen,  ceitainly  occurred 
at  Shiish.  The  town  of  Shuster  appears  to  have  risen 
into  importance  at  a  period  coincident  with  the  decline 
of  the  great  capital  of  the  Persian  kings  ;  and  the  mo- 
dern name  "  Shuster,"  or  "  Little  Shush,"  indicates  its 
phoenix-like  birth  from  the  ruins  of  the  greater  city, 
Shushan.  However  this  may  be,  it  was  undoubtedly  at 
the  height  of  its  power  in  the  time  of  Shapiir,  the 
second  monarch  of  the  Sassanian  line,  a.d.  242-273. 
History  tells  us,  that  when  Shapur  advanced  from  Persia 
to  wrest  the  Western  Provinces  of  Asia  from  the  hands 
of  the  Eomaus,  the  Emperor  Valerian,  in  attempting  to 
relieve  Edessa,  was  taken  prisoner.  Shapur,  mth  the 
cruelty  of  the  Eastern  character,  during  seven  years 
insulted  and  degraded  his  fallen  foe,  using  him  as  a  foot- 
stool to  mount  on  horseback.  At  lengtli,  after  a  con- 
tinuance of  unheard-of  cruelties,  the  captive's  eyes  were 
plucked  out,  and  his  skin — flayed  from  his  body — was 
dressed,  died  red,  and  stuffed,  in  which  condition  it  v/as 
carried  about  with  the  conqueror,  and  exhibited  as  a 
trophy  of  his  greatness !  To  Valerian's  captivity  and 
genius  Shuster  is  in  an  eminent  degree  indebted.  The 
existing  remains  of  magnificent  specimens  of  engineering 
skill,  far  surpassing  anything  of  the  kind  in  Persia  at  the 
present  day,  are  attributed  to  him.  It  forms  no  part  of 
my   intention  to  describe   these   remarkable   hydi-aulic 


298  THE  BUND-f-MlZAN. 

works  in  detail,  because  this  has  been  carefully  done 
elsewhere  f'  but  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  give  a 
short  description  of  them  for  the  information  of  the 
general  reader. 

The  K^run,  just  before  reaching  the  town  of  Shiister, 
after  striking  against  a  high  cliff  of  sandstone  and  gravel 
conglomerate,  makes  an  abrupt  turn  to  the  west,  passing 
close  under  the  foot  of  the  castle  rock.  Beyond  this  is 
the  Bund-i-Mizan — a  massive  dam  of  hewn  stone  blocks, 
fastened  with  iron  cramps,  and  thrown  completely  across 
the  wide,  deep,  and  rapid  stream  of  the  Kdrtin.  The 
admii'able  nature  of  this  dam  is  evident  from  its  having 
borne  the  rush  of  the  torrent  during  so  many  centuries. 
This  bund  not  only  acts  as  the  wall  of  a  reservoir,  but 
serves  as  a  foundation  for  a  bridge  of  enormous  length. 
Probably  no  portion  of  Valerian's  original  structure  now 
exists  at  this  bund,  with  the  exception  of  some  massive 
pier-bases.  The  bridge  itself  has  repeatedly  given  way 
in  various  places,  and  now  presents  a  complete  patch- 
work of  Persian  ingenuity  in  architecture.  Three  of  the 
centre  arches  had  fallen  the  winter  before  our  visit,  and 
lay  obstructing  the  passage  of  the  water  over  the  bund — ■ 
to  all  appearance  likely  to  lie  there  until  the  force  of  the 
current  should  wash  them  away!  Of  the  arches  remain- 
ing, thirty-six  were  large  and  twenty  small — built  in 
every  style,  from  the  high  to  the  low  pointed  arch.  On 
the  north  side,  below  the  bridge,  are  the  remains  of 
several  water-mills,  to  which  the  Avater  is  diverted  by 
excavations  in  the  solid  rock.  The  gravel  cliffs  here  are 
hoUowed  out  in  every  direction  for  serdabs,  or  cellars, 
many  of  which  are  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  a 
large  caravan.     Pillars  of  the  rock  are  left  to  support  the 

•  I  m\ist  refer  to  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's  and  Mr  Layard's  valuable  pape:-s, 
in  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  for  a  full  and  historical  account  of  these 
extraordinary  works.    Vol.  ix.,  p.  73  ;  voL  xvi.,  p.  27. 


THE  BUND-f-KAYSAR.  299 

roof ;  but  huge  blocks,  lying  in  the  bed  of  the  river, 
attest  that  they  have  fallen  from  their  places  by  being 
too  much  undermined. 

The  object  of  the  Bund-i-Mizan  was  twofold: — to  form 
a  foundation  for  the  bridge,  and  to  accumulate  a  sheet  of 
water  before  the  castle  for  the  delectation  of  its  possessor, 
who,  like  all  Persians,  was,  doubtless,  partial  to  the  sight 
— if  not  to  the  touch — of  water. 

But  Valerian's  or  Shapur's  great  work  was  the  cutting 
of  the  great  channel,  through  which  the  A'b-1-Gargar,  or 
eastern  branch  of  the  Kdrtin,  flows,  which  was  effected 
at  the  point  where  the  main  stream  of  the  Ki-run  is,  as  I 
have  said,  deflected  from  its  previous  course  above  the 
town.  Here  a  cutting  was  made  to  the  depth  of  seventy 
feet  through  the  natural  rock,  and  carried  to  a  distance, 
which  I  am  unable  to  state,  from  the  bed  of  the  original 
channel.  Into  this  cutting  the  stream  was  admitted  ; 
but,  as  it  must  otherwise  have  abstracted  the  greater  part 
of  the  river,  a  soHd  and  well-built  wall,  supported  by 
strong  buttresses  of  he^vn  stone,  was  built  across  the 
mouth  of  the  canal.  To  withstand  the  force  of  the 
stream,  when  flooded,  the  dam  was  suppHed  with  external 
round  buttresses,  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
The  water,  admitted  through  several  sluices  in  the  stone- 
work, may  be  regulated  at  pleasure.  The  name  applied 
to  this  massive  dam  is  a  self-evident  proof  of  its  being 
originally  designed  and  constructed  by  the  captive 
emperor  :  it  is  called  Bund-1-Kaysar,  or  Caesar's'''  dam. 
It  is  likemse  frequently  named  Bund-i-Shah-zada,t  from 
having  been  repaired  or  strengthened  by  a  late  prince- 
governor  of  Kirmanshah. 

*  Caesar,  as  every  person  knows,  was  the  title  assumed  by  all  the  Boman 
emperors  after  Julius  Csesar,  in  the  same  manner  as  Pharaoh  was  applied 
to  the  Egyptian  monarch. 

t  Shdh-zdda  means  Prince  ;  literally  "Son  of  a  king." 


300  THE  BUND-f-KAYSAK. 

At  the  distance  of  about  lialf-a-mile  below  this  ancient 
^^■ork  is  another  Ijund,  of  probably  more  recent  construc- 
tion, even  more  solid  and  substantial  than  the  one  just 
described.  It  communicates  with  the  suburb  of  Boleitl, 
and  is  hence  called  Pidi  Boleitl,  being  seventy  paces  long, 
twelve  paces  wide,  and  nearly  as  high  as  the  cliffs  on 
either  side.  The  water,  conveyed  through  the  rock  at  the 
sides,  falls  about  twenty  feet  into  the  artificial  channel 
below,  working,  in  its  course,  numerous  wheels,  which 
daily  grind  immense  quantities  of  barley.  There  does 
not,  probably,  exist  throughout  the  East  a  single  city 
at  which  so  much  labour  has  been  expended  in  distri- 
buting a  proper  supply  of  water  to  its  dependencies  as 
at  Shiister.  The  interior  of  the  town  is  provided  for  by 
two  canals,  pierced  through  the  castle  rock. 

Between  the  Bund-i-Kaysar  and  the  Eunl-i-Mizan,  the 
bed  of  the  Karun  is  said  to  be  paved  Avith  stone,  and 
called  the  Shadarawan, 

With  the  exception  of  the  bunds  and  foundations  of 
the  great  bridge,  there  do  not  appear  to  be  at  Sliiister 
any  buildings  existing  of  earlier  date  than  the  Moham- 
medan era,  although  M.  Court  ^'"'  mentions  a  relic  of 
Sassanian  origin  at  the  castle  gateway,  but  which  no 
other  modern  traveller  has  yet  seen. 

Suleyman  Khan,  the  governor  of  the  province,  to 
whom  our  letters  were  addressed,  was  absent  at  Eam 
Hormiizd  collecting  tribute,  and  preparing  to  send  an 
expedition  against  the  great  Bakhtiydri  chief,  Jafer  Kuli 
Khan,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  his  inaccessible  mountain 
fortress — the  Diz — and  defied  all  the  forces  of  Persia. 
AVe  were,  however,  received  by  his  secretary  Hadji 
Mohammed  'All,  and  Mirza  Sultan  'Ali  Klian,  the  gover- 
nor of  the  town  for  the  time  being,  who,  as  well  as  the 
other  great  men  of  the  place,  treated  us  to  a  series  of 

*  Joiirnal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bombay,  No.  xxxv.,  p.  5G0. 


THE  GOVERNORS  RECEPTION.  301 

festivities,  which,  if  not  quite  in  accordance  with 
European  taste,  at  least  shewed  a  disposition  to  honour 
their  visitors  after  their  own  fashion.  The  following  was 
the  style  of  entertainment  dispensed  to  us  by  the  gover- 
nor, whose  residence  was  one  of  the  most  pleasantly 
situated,  and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  town.  It  stood  on 
the  edge  of  the  cliff  overlooking  the  A'bi-Gargar — a  huge 
block  of  lofty  walling,  with  here. and  there  a  small  grated 
window,  more  useful  for  the  discharge  of  Ijullets  during 
an  emeiife  than  for  the  admission  of  light  or  air.  It  had 
two  entrances,  the  principal  of  which  was  a  deep  oval 
recess,  decorated  at  the  top  with  Arabesque  ornaments 
usual  in  such  positions,  and  supplied  with  stone  seats, 
where  the  owner  of  the  mansion  "  sat  in  the  gate,"  after 
the  mode  of  Orientals  in  all  ages,  hearing  the  news  and 
discussing  the  various  questions  of  the  day  amid  a 
respectfid  circle  of  visitors  and  attendants.  Rising  at 
our  approach,  he  conducted  us  through  a  spacious  court, 
containing  in  the  centre  a  large  tank  fuU  of  water,  up  a 
narrow  staircase  in  one  corner,  to  an  upper  story,  where 
was  a  second  but  smaller  court,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  plain  walls — the  fourth,  next  the  river,  containing  an 
iw^n,  or  arched  chamber,  open  at  one  extremity — a  never- 
failing  adjunct  to  Persian  houses. 

In  the  centre  of  the  court  was  a  small  garden  with  a 
few  stunted  specimens  of  vegetation,  and  in  front  of  the 
iw4n  was  a  small  reservoir — also  an  indispensable  neces- 
sary to  Persian  keyf — in  which  two  very  curious  jets  were 
made  to  play  in  an  extremely  comical  manner  by  the  pres- 
sure of  water,  raised  from  the  river  to  the  top  of  the  house. 
This  was  effected  by  means  of  a  creaking  piece  of  machinery 
and  leathern  buckets,  driven  by  an  obstinate  mule,  which, 
to  the  no  small  amusement  of  my  companion  and  myself, 
every  now  and  then  turning  restive,  caused  the  cessation 
of  the  fountains  through  lack  of  the  needful  supply. 


302  THE  governor's  banquet. 

We  were  soon  duly  seated  iipou  one  of  those  mag- 
nificent   carpets    which    excite    the    admiration    of   all 
travellers  in  that  country.     Mirza  Sultan  'All  Khdn  was 
very  gracious  as  we  explained  to  him  the  object  of  oui- 
proposed  visit  to  Shush,  and  the  nature  of  the  information 
likely  to  be  derived  from  excavating  in  its  mounds.    He 
quite  comprehended  us,  and  became  warm  on  the  con- 
quests of  Key  Kawtis,  and  the  magnificence  of  KJiussrev  ; 
but  when,  as  a  matter  of  course,  he  struck    into   the 
everlasting  theme  of  Persian  recitation — the  Shah-nama 
of  Ferdusi — there  seemed  a  probability  that  his  excite- 
ment would  outdo  his  hospitality.     The  name  of  Shush 
acted  like  magic  on  a  knot  of  green-turbaned  gentry  who 
sat  with  us,  and  the  whispering  that  succeeded  proved 
them  to  be  jealous  and  doubtful  of  our  real  intentions  ; 
but  of  this  we  took  no  heed.     Kaliyiines,  or  water  pipes, 
were  first  duly  served  by  ganymedes  with  sombre  head- 
dress,  and  hand   upon  heart ;    then   ensued  a  general 
hubble-bubbling,  as  if  it  were  part  of  every  man's  avoca- 
tion in  life  to  inhale  the  smoke  of  tobacco  and  charcoal 
into  his  lungs  with  the  greatest  possible  noise.     After 
this  came  tea — not  the  stuff  sold  in  English  grocers' 
shops,  which  produces  astringency  enough  to  convert  the 
surface  of  the  tongue  into  a  rasp — but  pure  and  undefiled 
chai,  brought  overland  through  Russia,  and  whose  flavour 
gives  one  some  idea  of  the  delicious  infusion  which,  alas  ! 
we  in  England  know  not  of.     Russian  overland  tea,  in 
Persia,  takes  the  place  which  Arab  coffee  assumes  in  Turkey, 
and  no  old  lady  in  the  land  of  the  west  can  sip  her  dish 
of  fragrant  tea  with  more  relish  than  does  the  Persian 
gentleman.     There,  the  greater  the  pile  of  sugar  put  into 
the  cup,  the  greater  is  the  honour  paid  to  the  guest. 
Succeeding  to  a  surfeit  of  tea-syrup  came  a  second  edition 
of  kaliyun,   after  which  we  imderwent  the  categorical 
examination  of  the  green  tiirbans  for  so  long  a  time  that 


THE  governor's  BANQUET.  303 

I  confess  to  having  entirely  lost  the  use  of  my  nether 
extremities  from  cramp.  We  had  gone  to  breakfast  with 
the  governor  at  an  hour  he  had  himself  named,  but,  time 
sHpping  rapidly  away,  it  became  questionable  whether 
our  host  had  not  forgotten  the  invitation,  or  whether  we 
had  misimderstood  him.  Three  huge  trays  at  length 
entered  the  court  on  men's  heads,  which  prepared  us  for 
a  sumptuous  repast ;  my  readers  may  judge  our  disap- 
pointment and  horror  when,  at  mid-day,  without  pre- 
viously eating  anything,  we  found  that  the  trays  placed 
before  us  contained  literally  nothing  but  green  cucumbers 
and  sour  apricots — the  S3anbols  of  cholera,  as  we  had 
been  accustomed  to  regard  them  !  However,  there  was 
no  retreat,  so,  putting  a  good  face  on  the  matter,  we  duly 
washed  our  hands  and  set  to  with  the  best  possible  grace. 
We  both  fortunately  survived  that  day !  After  the 
banquet  came  a  washing  of  hands  in  the  water  tank  with 
the  comical  jets,  another  course  of  kaliyuns,  and  finally 
a  cup  of  coffee,  wdiich  completed  this  great  entertainment 
and  permitted  our  departure  w^th  decorum.  The  gover- 
nor accompanied  us  to  the  door  of  his  house,  and  we  rode 
to  our  tents  by  the  river  side  to  get  "  something  to  eat ! " 
This  was  a  specimen  of  the  ordinary  fetes,  but  we 
sometimes  had  enough,  and  much  more  than  enough,  of 
chilaw,  and  pilaw,  and  lamb  stuffed  with  rice,  almonds, 
and  raisins  ;  vegetables  swimming  in  oil,  and  an  infinity 
of  compounds,  which  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate,  and 
which  only  a  hungry  traveller  can  truly  appreciate. 
Tea  and  sherbet  were  our  only  drink  during  these  visits, 
but,  for  all  that,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  Persians 
do  not  tipple.  I  well  remember  a  subsequent  stay  at 
Shuster,  when,  in  addition  to  one  of  sherry,  a  bottle  of 
brandy  was  placed  on  the  table  of  the  Commission,  after  a 
long  day's  journey  in  a  pouring  rain.  The  governor's 
brother  entered,  in  his  usual  sedate  manner,  and  took  a 


304  A  PERSIAN  TIPPLEK. 

seat.  He  desired  to  know  the  contents  of  the  bottles  ; 
a  glass  of  sherry  Avas  poured  out,  which  he  drank,  and 
pronounced  "  khfib !"  " good!"  A  second  was  "  khile  khub ! 
bisiar  khub !"  "  extremely  good !" — but  he  asked  to  taste 
of  the  other  bottle.  That  was  "beh!  beh!  beh!"  Then 
he  tried  a  glass  of  sherry,  then  a  glass  of  •  brandy. 
Finally,  he  seized  both  bottles,  and  mixed  the  liquors  in  the 
same  glass;  nor  did  he  desist  until  the  whole  contents 
had  disappeared.  Not  content  with  this,  he  asked  for  more, 
but  this  was,  of  course,  refused  him.  He  was  ultimately 
supported  from  the  room  by  an  old  domestic,  who 
exhibited  great  concern  that  ghyawrs  should  see  his  master 
in  his  cups.  We  afterwards  learned  that,  previously  to 
joining  our  party,  he  had  imbibed  eleven  glasses  of  raw 
'arak !  An  oriental  has  no  idea  of  temperance  in  his 
potations  ;  he  thinks  that  there  is  little  pleasure  in  a 
single  glass :  accordingly,  when  he  drinks,  he  does  so  to 
excess. 

During  the  summer,  the  intensity  of  the  heat  compels 
the  people  of  Shuster  to  retire  into  their  serdabs,  or 
under-ground  apartments,  during  the  day,  and  to  emerge 
at  sunset  to  sleep  upon  their  terraces.  These  serdabs 
are  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  supplied  with  flues  or 
shafts,  which,  rising  above  the  houses  like  ornamental 
chimneys,  produce  a  free  current  of  air.  Without  ser- 
dabs, it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  exist  in  the  hot, 
drying  wind,  which  more  resembles  the  blast  from  a 
furnace,  than  the  air  of  the  habitable  earth. 

In  the  absence  of  Suleyman  Khan,  we  were  more 
especially  the  guests  of  Hadji  Mahommed  'Alt  who  would 
not  permit  anything  to  be  cooked  by  our  own  people, 
insisting  that  whatever  we  required  should  be  sent  from 
his  kitchen.  In  fact,  during  our  stay,  all  parties  vied 
with  each  other  in  their  attentions  towards  us. 

With  letters  to  the  Governor  of  Dizftil,   to  aid  and 


DIPLOMATIC  FAILURE.  305 

assist  our  plans  at  Sli6sli,  we  took  leave  of  our  new 
friends.  Two  small  keleks  supplied  the  place  of  the 
broken  bridge,  by  means  of  which  our  baggage  was 
conveyed  to  the  western  bank  of  the  Shuteyt,  where  it  was 
necessary  to  pass  the  night,  so  as  to  make  a  good  start 
at  daybreak.  On  quitting  Shuster  a  liberal  present  was 
left  for  the  servants  of  Hadji  Mahommed  'Mi,  in  return 
for  his  hospitality.  It  was,  however,  sent  back,  with  a 
message  "  that  the  Hadji  would  not  permit  it ;  were  we 
not  the  Hadji's  guests,  and  should  his  servants  receive 
presents  on  that  account,  although  it  was  a  Persian 
custom  ?  It  was  a  bad  example ; — they  would  expect 
the  same  from  the  next  Englishman  who  chanced  to  pass 
that  way."  Soon  afterwards,  the  major-domo  of  the 
Hadji  presented  himself  with  a  low  bow,  and  a  pretended 
message  from  his  master  to  the  intent  that,  "  if  it  were 
tlie  custom  of  our  country  to  give  bakhshisJi  on  depar- 
ture, he  would  for  once  permit  us  to  do  so !''  Another 
low  bow  from  the  messenger,  who  bore  aU  the  appearance 
of  a  convicted  thief!  He  tried  a  clever  trick,  but, 
finding  the  Firenghis  too  deep  for  him,  was  obliged  to 
slink  off  without  the  much-coveted  kerans,  evidently  dis- 
gusted at  the  unsuccessful  termination  of  his  diplomacy- 


17 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Departure  from  Shuster — Change  of  Sceijery  and  Animal  Life — Huge 
Lizards — Botany — Geology  of  the  Persian  Steppes — Sliah-abad — 
Dizful — Subterranean  Conduits — Costume  of  the  People — The  'Ali 
Kethir  Guide — The  Bridge  of  the  Diz — Encampment  at  Shush — A 
Conflagration. 

On  first  leaving  the  bank  of  the  Kdrun,  the  road  to  Dizftil 
traverses  some  small  ridges  of  gravel  conglomerate,  the 
alteration  in  the  geological  features  of  the  country  being 
accompanied  by  a  corresponding  change  in  animal  and 
vegetable  life.  Clinging  to  the  rocks,  basking  in  the  hot 
sun,  or  fleetly  pursuing  smaller  reptiles,  were  numerous 
huge  lizards  {Psammosaurus  scincus)  lashing  their  long 
tails,  and  opening  their  capacious  black  jaws.  Our 
gholdm  exhibited  his  skill  as  a  rider  and  sportsman,  in 
shooting  one  of  these  creatures  for  examination.  They 
live  chiefly  on  snakes,  which  they  pounce  on  suddenly, 
shake  as  a  terrier  does  a  rat,  and  cranch  from  tail  to 
head  ;  then  they  suck  the  mangled  body  down  their 
throats,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  Neapolitan 
swallowino;  his  national  maccaroni !  I  once  saw  a  lizard 
of  this  species  attack,  kill,  and  attempt  to  swallow  a 
serpent  six  feet  long.  After  gulping  for  a  length  of  time 
to  get  down  the  tip  end  of  its  victim's  tail,  which  hung 
out  of  its  mouth,  it  disgorged  its  meal,  repeated  the  pro- 
cess of  mastication,  and,  ultimately,  after  some  hard 
gasping,  succeeded  in  overcoming  its  difficulty. 


BOTANY.  307 

Then,  for  the  first  time,  we  encountered  the  delicately- 
phimed  rock  partridge  [Perdix  petrosa,  Lath.),  fraterniz- 
ing with  its  velvet-breasted  relative  of  the  lower  plains,  the 
common  francolin — the  favourite  of  the  sportsman.  In 
botany,  the  tamarisk  and  the  camel's  thorn  were  replaced 
along  the  margin  of  the  streams  by  the  poisonous  ole- 
ander, with  its  elegant  pink  flowers.  I  here  also  first 
observed  a  large  shrub,  7  feet  high,  called  "kalableb," 
which  bore  a  large  white  flower  ;  the  stem  was  full  of  a 
milky  juice,  bitter  to  the  taste,  and  said  to  burn  like 
caustic.  There  was  likewise  a  large  plant,  bearing  a  leaf 
much  resembling  rhubarb,  and  a  bunch  of  deep -red 
flowers,  which  produces  an  oval  green,  fleshy,  spiked 
syncarpous  fruit,  longitudinally  divided  into  four  parts, 
each  containing  three  rows  of  white  juicy  berries,  of 
agreeable  flavour,  resembling  the  walnut.  They  are 
largely  collected  by  the  Arabs  for  food.  At  Dizfid,  I 
heard  the  plant  called  by  an  Arab,  "  Dendrorhu ;"  it  is 
named  by  the  Turks,  "  Ar4b  khozi,^'  or  Arab  nut."^ 

"With  the  above  exceptions,  vegetation  was  already 
dead  throughout  the  undidating  gravel  ridges.  It  was 
now  only  the  1 9th  of  ]\Iay,  and  yet  the  grass  was  scorched 
to  a  bright  yellow,  which,  with  the  deep  red  of  the  gravel 
itself,  gave  to  the  imagination  a  vivid  idea  of  the  intense 
heat  reiofnino-  in  that  remon  three  months  later  in  the 
season.  The  temperature  was  high,  but  it  was  perfectly 
delightful  compared  with  the  furnace  we  had  recently 
quitted  at  Mohammerah.  A  fresh  invigorating  breeze 
every  now  and  then  blew  from  the  adjoining  moimtains, 
along  the  base  of  which  oik  route  lay,  giving  some  con- 
ception of  the  delights  in  store  for  us  as  soon  as  we  might 

♦  Since  the  above  was  written,  I  have  ascertained,  through  Mr  Bennett 
of  the  British  Museum,  that  this  plant  is  the  Glosmstemon  Brvguieri  of 
Desfontaines,  described  and  figured  in  Mem.  du  Mus.  Hist.  Nat.,  torn,  iii., 
p.  238,  pi.  11.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  met  with  since  the  time 
of  Bruguier,  in  1797. 


308  GEOLOGY. 

quit  the  burning  plains.  Having  passed  so  many  months 
upon  the  unpicturesque  level  of  the  Arab  deserts,  the  ap- 
proach to  the  mountains  of  Luristan  was  hailed  by  my 
companion  and  myself  with  unspeakable  delight.  The 
anticipation  of  ere  long  reaching  some  of  those  snow- 
crowned  crests  far  surpassed  the  positive  reality  when 
we  had  attained  the  summit  of  our  wishes. 

The  great  range,  distant  thirty  miles  from  our  road, 
attains  an  elevation  of  eight  or  ten  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  bears  in  a  general  direction  towards  the  north- 
west. Its  rocky  masses  belong  entirely  to  the  cretaceous 
and  lower  tertiary  series,  rising  in  huge,  elongated  saddles 
of  compact,  altered  limestone  parallel  to  each  other.  At 
intervals,  where  the  elevating  force,  which  produced  the 
present  configuration  of  this  region,  has  acted  with 
extreme  intensity,  the  continuity  of  the  beds  became 
broken,  and  masses  of  rock  were  left  standing  isolated  with 
precipitous  escarpments,  presenting  retreats  accessible 
only  to  the  savage  inhabitants.  "  Diz"  is  the  name  appKcd 
to  natural  fortresses  of  this  kind,  which  frequently  bear  on 
their  summits  acres  of  rich  grass,  and  springs  of  dehcious 
water,  whither  a  native  chief  with  his  adherents  can  retire 
in  safety  in  times  of  need,  and  defend  their  difficult  passes 
with  a  handful  of  men  against  the  whole  power  of  the 
Persian  government  itself.  Superimposed  on  the  harder 
limestone  rocks  are  beds  of  a  softer  nature-; — marls, 
rivallinor  the  coloured  sands  of  our  own  Isle  of  Wight  in 
their  brilliant  and  variegated  aspect, — vast  piles  of  amor- 
phous gypsum  dazzling  the  eye  with  its  excessive  white- 
ness,— and  successive  layers  of  red  sands  alternating  with 
gravel.  These  formations  follow  the  contortions  of  the 
harder  crystalline  limestones,  lie  at  extraordinary  angles 
on  the  slopes  of  the  saddles,  and  fill  up  the  hot,  feverish 
valleys  between  them. 

Wherever  the  higlilands  of  Persia  are  approached  from 


GEOLOGY.  309 

the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  the  same  formidable  barrier 
of  mountains  presents  itself.  To  attain  the  high  level  of 
that  garden  of  roses,  which  the  Persian  poet  loves  to  des- 
cant on,  it  is  necessary  to  climb  the  successive  ridges  by 
roads  scarcely  better  than  goat  tracks,  which  regular  gra- 
dation of  ascents  is  appropriately  described  by  the  Greek 
historians  as  K\i/xaK€<i,  or  ladders.  All  the  great  rivers, 
which  flow  from  the  east  into  the  Tigris  have  their 
sources  in  these  mountains,  crossing  diagonally  through 
the  intricacies  of  the  chain.  Instead  of  flowing  in  a 
south-east  direction  along  the  trough  which  separates 
two  parallel  limestone  saddles,  and  by  this  means  work- 
ing out  its  channel  in  the  soft  rocks  of  the  gypsiferous 
and  marly  series,  and  rounding  the  extremity  of  the  saddle 
where  it  dips  under  the  overlying  deposits,  each  of  these 
rivers  takes  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  its  former 
course,  and  passes  directly  through  the  limestone  range 
by  means  of  a  "  tang,"  or  gorge,  apparently  formed  for 
this  express  purpose.  On  reaching  the  next  succeeding 
gypsum  trough,  it  follows  its  original  south-east  course 
for  a  short  distance,  and  again  crosses  the  next  chain  in 
the  same  manner,  until  it  attains  the  verdant  plains 
of  Assyria  or  Susiana.  Many  of  these  tangs  expose 
a  perpendicular  section  of  one  thousand  feet  and 
upwards,  and  were  formed,  not  by  the  scooping  process 
which  attends  river  action,  but  by  natural  rents  produced 
by  the  tension  of  the  crystalline  mass  at  the  period  of  its 
elevation.  Of  these  fissures  the  rivers  have  taken  ad- 
vantage and  shortened  their  otherwise  circuitous  channels. 
I  must  not,  however,  fatigue  my  readers  with  a  geolo- 
gical account  of  regions  which  we  are  not  about  to 
enter.''^ 

*  For  a  detailed  geological  description  of  these  highly  interesting  moun* 
tains  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  my  lengthy  memoir,  "  On  the  Geology 
of  Portions  of  the  Turko-Persian  Frontier  and  the  Districts  adjoining,"  in 
vqL  xi.  p.  247  of  the  "  Quarterly  Joui-nal  of  the  Geological  Society." 


310  konAts. 

Between  Shiister  and  DizMl  we  spent  one  night  upon 
the  journey  at  the  little  village  of  Shah-abad  (King's 
abode).  There  is  nothing  to  remark  concerning  this 
place,  except  that  it  is  built  upon  the  ruins  of  Jundi- 
Shapiir,  a  city  which  attained  some  celebrity  during  the 
late  Sassanian  and  early  Mohammedan  eras,  but  which 
ultimately  succumbed  to  the  better  positions  of  its  neigh- 
bouring rivals,  Shuster  and  Dizful.  Low  mounds  and 
ramparts,  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  surrounding 
plain,  are  all  that  now  remain ;  these  are  ploughed  over 
the  surface,  and  yield  to  the  inhabitants  rich  crops  of 
grain. 

From  hence,  a  ten  miles'  ride  brings  the  traveller  to 
the  gates  of  Dizful,   over  a  rough  road  strewed  with 
large  rounded  blocks  of  limestone,  mingled  with  coarse 
gravel.     The  surrounding  husbandry  is  brought  to  per- 
fection by  means  of  periodical  rains,  which  faU  in  tropical 
abundance  from  December  to  the  end  of  March;    but 
villages  near  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  are  suppHed 
with  water  through  konats,   or  under-ground  channels, 
conveyed  from  the  river  of  Dizful.     In  nothing  is  the 
industry  of  the  Persian  more  obvious  than  in  the  forma- 
tion of  these   subterranean  conduits.     Upon  the  high 
plains  of  the  interior,  where  frequently  no  visible  moisture 
exists  on  the  surface,  an  imder-ground  gallery  is  run 
diagonally  towards  some  neighbouring  range,  and  con- 
tinued until  the  filtration  of   numerous   Httle  diiblets, 
or  runners,  accumulates  into  a  sufficiently  copious  stream. 
Many  of  these  konats  extend  for  miles,  and  are  traceable 
by  httle  piles  of  earth  and  gravel,  thi-own  out  of  razunas, 
or  skylights,  at  regular  intervals.     In  some  parts,   the 
cultivation  of  the  crops  entirely  depends  on  the  water 
flowino-   from   konats.      Isfahan   itself  is,   to  a  certain 
extent,  supplied  with  the  valued  fluid  through  konats, 
which  convey  streams  from  near  Khonsar,  and  swell  the 


DIZFUL.  311 

little  river  Zenderud,  as  it  flows  to  tlie  former  capital  of 
Persia. 

There  is  nothing  enticing  in  the  first  view  of  Dizfiil, 
from  any  direction — bare  mud  walls  and  white  mosques 
being  the  prevaiHng  features.  It  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  of  Diz,  which  rushes  in  a  deep  channel 
through  cliffs  of  gravel  conglomerate.  If  the  external 
aspect  of  the  place  is  not  inviting,  much  less  so  is  the 
interior.  The  houses,  like  those  of  Shiister,  are  built 
chiefly  of  sandstone,  with  serdabs  below  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock.  The  streets  are,  if  possible,  in  a  worse  state 
of  filth  than  the  neighbouring  city,  and  the  stench  arising 
from  them  is  perfectly  sickening;  but,  as  a  counter- 
balance, there  is  an  air  of  greater  prosperity  about  the 
place  ;  the  bazaars,  miserable  in  themselves,  are  better 
suppHed,  and  the  houses  are  in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair. 

Dizfiil  is  the  Manchester  of  these  regions.  The  banks  of 
the  river  afibrd  employment  to  hundreds  of  persons  at 
the  dyeing  stoves.  Indigo  was  introduced  from  Isfahan, 
a  few  years  ago,  by  the  Mu  temedu-'d-dowlet — the  uncle 
of  Suleyman  Khan,  and  it  is  now  largely  cultivated  in 
the  neighbourhood,  as  the  staple  article  of  commerce. 
The  population  of  the  place  is  between  15,000  and  18,000 
Mohammedans,  and  about  thirty  families  of  Sabseans,  but 
there  are  do  Christians. 

Every  Oriental  traveller  knows  the  ghost-Hke  and 
unseemly  costume  of  the  Persian  lady  out  of  doors, 
muffled  up  in  her  ])lue  or  white  wrapper,  and  peering 
through  a  perforated  mask,  which  might  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  helmet  of  a  knight  of  the  middle  ages. 
At  Dizful,  however,  many  ladies  adopt  a  local  head-dress, 
by  no  means  inelegant ;  it  is  a  pecuhar  wide-meshed 
net  of  silk  or  cotton,  which  hangs  over  the  head  and 
shoulders,  leaving  only  the  face  exposed;  but  as  it  would 
be  indecorous  on  the  part  of  a  JNIohammedan  lady  to  aUow 


312  INHABITANTS  OF  DIZFtJL. 

a  passer-by  to  see  her  features,  the  lady  of  Dizfiil  holds 
a  corner  of  the  net  in  her  hand,  and  endeavours — some- 
wliat  vainly,  it  must  be  admitted — to  conceal  them  with  it. 

Tlie  dress  of  the  men  resembles  that  of  Shtister,  but 
the  crowds  of  green  and  white  turbans  which  meet  him 
in  the  street  cannot  fail  to  strike  a  stranger.  Every 
third  man  appears  to  be  either  a  descendant  of  the 
prophet,  or  a  priestly  dignitary — than  whom,  more 
ungodly,  depraved,  and  intriguing  characters  are  not  to  be 
found  in  the  realms  of  the  Shahinshah.  They  are  at 
the  bottom  of  all  mischief,  and  especially  collect  at 
Dizful — perhaps  that  they  may  hatch  their  plots,  and 
carry  on  their  rascalities,  as  far  removed  as  possible  from 
the  seat  of  government.  Aware  of  this  fact,  we  thought 
it  desirable  not  to  state  openly  the  object  of  our  visit, 
but  to  give  out  that  we  proposed  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
tomb  of  the  prophet  Daniel,  and  that  we  should  stay 
there  a  few  days ; — the  whole  truth  would  doubtless  soon 
make  itself  known.  To  Mirza  Zekki,  the  governor, 
however,  we  explained  ourselves  fully.  He  promised 
that  a  guide  should  be  ready  at  sunrise,  to  conduct  us 
to  Shush,  and  strongly  urged  us  not  to  delay  our  return 
longer  than  was  absolutely  necessary  for  our  purpose, 
because  the  Beni  Lam  Arabs  were  plundering  in  the 
vicinity,  and  we  should  not  be  safe  from  their  forays. 

At  daybreak,  according  to  promise,  our  cicerone  made 
his  appearance,  with  letters  to  Sheikh  Mtisa'd,  a  chief 
of  the  'All  Kethlr  Arabs,  whose  encampment  was  near 
the  ruins.  Our  guide  rode  a  well-bred  gray  mare,  of 
which  he  appeared  excessively  proud.  She  was  hung  all 
round  with  red  tassels,  which  dangled  as  low  as  her  knees, 
materially  impeding  her  progress ;  her  bridle  was  like- 
wise ornamented  in  the  same  manner.  Upon  a  bright 
red  saddle  of  felt  sat  the  Arab,  in  his  striped  zibbun,  con- 
fined to  his  waist  by  a  wide  belt,  studded  with  sHver,  and 


THE  BRIDGE  OF  DIZFOL.  313 

containing  a  brace  of  old-fashioned  silver-mounted  pistols. 
Suspended  from  various  parts  of  his  person  were 
numerous  gourds  and  cases,  belts  and  contrivances  for 
carrying  ammunition.  A  long  spear,  tufted  with  a  large 
ostrich  feather,  and  a  shield,  comj)leted  his  picturesque 
attire.  His  manner  was  quite  in  keeping  with  his 
costume,  for  he  was  a  most  unsociable  sort  of  being, 
uttering  only  monosyllables,  and  apparently  half-witted. 
The  "  piil,"  or  bridge,  which  here  crosses  the  "  Diz"  of 
course  gives  the  name  to  the  town  of  Dizful.  It  was 
once  a  fine  structure,  but,  like  its  fellow  at  Shuster, 
is  rapidly  falling  to  decay.  It,  too,  has  experienced 
numerous  repairs,  which  have  not  added  to  its  beauty  if 
they  have  to  its  usefulness.  Of  its  twenty-one  arches, 
one  had  lately  disappeared  into  the  torrent  beneath,  and 
its  place  was  supplied  by  a  roadway  constructed  of  trees 
and  earth — several  feet,  however,  below  the  proper  level, 
so  that  it  required  some  little  ingenuity  and  activity  for 
the  passenger  to  scramble  down  one  extremity  and  up 
the  other.  The  arches  are  all  pointed,  and  built  of  brick 
of  comparatively  modern  date.  The  piers  are  undoubt- 
edly ancient,  probably  due,  as  tradition  assigns  them, 
to  the  age  of  Shapilr.  Their  construction  is  somewhat 
unusual;  the  interior  portion  is  cut  from  the  rock,  but  this 
being  of  a  yielding  nature,  each  is  faced  with  large  hewn 
blocks  of  stone,  formerly  held  together  by  iron  clamps: 
but  the  greater  part  of  these  have  disappeared,  and  the 
masonry  is  fast  following  their  example.  To  cross  this 
bridge  in  its  then  condition  was  no  easy  matter.  It  is  at 
all  times  crowded,  but  the  couple  of  break-neck  stair- 
cases, which  it  behoved  every  passenger  to  get  over  in  the 
best  way  he  could,  caused  a  complete  obstruction  of  the 
traffic.  There  was  a  continuous  string  of  donkeys  coming 
into  the  town  laden  with  melons,  cucumbers,  grapes,  and 
apricots,  firewood  and  barley,  every  one  struggling  and 


314  RICHNESS  OF  THE  SOIL. 

jostling  his  neighbour  for  the  precedency  in  crossing  the 
abyss, — the  ends  of  the  firewood  phiyiug  havoc  among 
the  easily  damaged  fruit, — the  felt-coated  owner  of  wliich 
was  naturally  ^\Toth  with  "  the  father  of  the  firewood." 
In  the  midst  of  the  ensuing  abuse,  a  stubborn  donkey 
would  delight  in  lying  do^vn  and  putting  a  stop  to  all 
further  progxess  until  his  load  were  taken  off  and  his  back 
belaboured  with  a  stout  cudgel.  At  the  same  time,  a 
Ions  caravan,  laden  with  no  one  knows  what — dead  bodies 
in  wood  coffins  perchance,  bound  to  KerbeUa — would 
arrive  to  increase  the  confusion. 

But,  however,  we  got  safely  out  of  this  mSle  with  only 
a  few  scratches  upon  our  loaded  mules,  and  proceeded 
onward  to  our  destination.  The  mounds  of  Shiish  are 
situated  about  fourteen  miles  south-south-west  of  Dizful, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  considerable  curve  in  order 
to  avoid  an  angle  of  the  river  which  at  this  point  is 
rapidly  wearing  away  high  chffs  of  alluvium.  The  rich 
land  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Diz  is  well  cultivated  and 
watered  by  an  infinite  number  of  canals,  derived  from  the 
river  ;  lemon  and  orange  trees  diffuse  the  most  dehcious 
odours  from  several  walled  enclosures  ;  rice,  indigo,  barley, 
vegetables,  all  arrive  at  perfection  in  this  favoured  soil. 
In  the  winter  and  spring,  numbers  of  sturdy  Lurs  descend 
from  the  mountains,  and  aid  in  the  cultivation  of  the  fields. 
Labour  is  cheap  and  food  abundant,  but  a  grinding  taxa- 
tion ruins  everything,  and  there  is  no  security  for  capital 

At  twelve  miles  from  Dizful  are  the  lofty  banks  of  an 
ancient  canal  far  above  the  level  of  the  Diz  ;  from  this  I 
obtained  my  first  view  of  the  great  mound  at  Shush — the 
fiat  platform  at  the  top  of  which  reared  its  head  boldly 
above  a  series  of  intervening  canal  banks,  and  excited 
my  utmost  expectation.  A  farther  ride  of  two  miles 
brought  us  to  its  base.  With  much  difficulty  our  mules 
clambered  its  almost   inaccessible  sides,  and  deposited 


THE  BURNING  OF  SUSA.  315 

their  burdens  on  the  ancient  citadel.  Tlie  tents  were 
just  pitched,  and  every  person  preparing  to  ensconce 
himself  snugly  from  the  rays  of  the  sim,  which  began  to 
make  themselves  exceedingly  disagreeable,  when  we  were 
all  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  cook,  a  poc^,  simple 
fellow,  who  managed  to  make  a  bonfire  of  the  great 
mound  of  Shfish — as  probably  Alexander  the  son  of 
Philip  had  done  before  him !  He  had  dug  a  hole,  and 
arranged  the  wood  preparatory  to  making  ready  our 
breakfast,  when  a  spark  from  his  flint  and  steel,  igniting 
the  dry  grass,  aroused  us  all  to  extinguish  the  flame,  which, 
fanned  by  the  wind,  made  rapidly  towards  the  tents. 
For  some  time  all  our  eflbrts  were  useless ;  there  was  no 
water  at  hand,  and  the  few  implements  we  possessed  were 
not  instantly  attainable.  There  was  no  alternative  but  to 
knock  do^\Ti  the  tents,  and  get  them  away  with  all  possible 
speed,  but  we  did  not  succeed  before  several  of  the  tent- 
ropes  were  consumed.  At  length  a  trench,  dug  roimd 
the  devouring  element,  arrested  its  further  progress,  and 
we  took  stock  of  our  property.  Excepting  the  loss  of  a 
few  ropes,  and  the  gain  of  a  few  smaU  holes,  the  tents 
escaped  well ;  but  our  heavy  luggage — such  as  boxes — had 
suffered  severely  on  their  exteriors.  Into  one  the  fire 
had  actually  penetrated,  and  was  making  a  terrible  on- 
slaught upon  a  pair  of  boots,  their  next  neighbour  being  a 
canister  of  English  gimpowder,  which  was  good  enough 
not  to  explode  while  a  dozen  people  were  standing  round, 
endeavouring  to  put  out  the  fire  !  But  the  articles,  dearly 
valued  by  my  companion  and  myself — our  uml)rellas — 
which,  beneath  the  sultry  noon,  hud  so  often  lent  us  their 
friendly  shelter,  lay  grim  skeletons  at  our  feet !  We  often 
afterwards  regretted  those  good  friends !  We  had  all  pre- 
viously complained  of  the  sun's  heat,  but  it  Avas  moonshine 
compared  with  that  of  the  burning  grass,  which  gave  us 
some  slight  idea  of  the  horrors  attendant  on  an  approaching 


316  SPIES. 

fire  on  the  American  prairies,  while  it  taught  us  a  lesson — 
never  to  permit  the  cook  to  get  to  the  windward  of  our- 
selves and  the  tents,  nor  to  suffer  his  fire  being  lighted 
before  the  dry  grass  was  cleared  away  from  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  kitchen.  Fortunately  this  happened  as  it 
did,  otherwise  we  might  have  been  burnt  up  during  the 
night  by  the  fall  of  a  spark  from  our  watchmen's  pipes. 

Before  we  had  been  twenty-four  hours  upon  the 
mounds,  it  was  evident  that  our  proceedings  were 
jealously  watched,  and  that  there  was  no  prospect  of 
making  immediate  excavations.  Our  attention  was, 
therefore,  directed  towards  completing  a  plan  of  the 
ruins  ;  but  soon  after  breakfast  on  the  following  morning 
the  heat  of  the  tents  drove  us  to  take  shelter  within  the 
precincts  of  the  Holy  Shrine. 

As  it  will  be  more  in  place  to  give  a  general  descrip- 
tion of  Shilsh  in  connexion  with  the  discoveries  which 
were  afterwards  made  in  the  ruins,  I  propose  to  d:'fer 
that  account  for  the  present ;  but  as  the  Tomb  of  Daniel 
is  so  intimately  linked  with  all  our  difficulties,  some  slight 
notice  of  it  will  best  occur  here. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

The  Tomb  of  the  Prophet  Daniel — Arabic  Traditions  regarding  him — 
Benjamin  of  Tudela's  Account — Present  State  of  the  Sepulchre — 
Spies  and  Persian  Fanaticism — Charge  of  Sacrilege — Ferment  in 
Dizful  and  the  Neighbourhood — The  'Ali  Kethir  Arabs  — An  ac«u- 
dent  befals  the  Author — Compelled  to  abandon  the  Mounds  of 
Shush — Battle  between  the  'Ali  Kethir  and  Beni  L^m — Suleyman 
Khin  the  Christian  Governor  of  a  Mohammedan  Province — ^Arrival 
of  Colonel  Williams. 

By  general  consent  of  Jews,  Sabaeans,  and  Mohamme- 
dans, the  burial-place  of  the  Prophet  Daniel  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  at  Shiish,  and  a  building  at  the  west  foot 
of  the  great  mound  is  consecrated  to  him,  and  held  in 
the  utmost  reverence  by  these  different  races.  Pilgrims 
from  all  parts  flock  to  "  Danyel"  to  offer  up  prayers  and 
bury  their  dead. 

In  the  book  which  bears  his  name  in  our  edition  of 
the  Scriptures,  frequent  allusion  is  made  to  Shushan 
the  palace.  As  history,  tradition,  and,  to  some  extent, 
the  names,  agree,  w^e  are  justified  in  assuming  that  the 
iTiins  of  Shiish  represent  the  Shushan  of  the  Bible,  and 
that  Daniel  was  really  buried  on  the  spot.  We  have, 
however,  the  authority  of  an  Arab  historian  for  conclud- 
ing that  the  present  tomb  of  Daniel  is  but  a  comparatively 
modern  edifice,  and  that  the  bones  of  the  Prophet  are  not 
enshrined  within  its  walls. 

As  the  subject  may  be  interesting  to  many  of  my 
readers,  I  extract  the  following  from  Sir  William  Ouseley's 


318  DANIEL  THE  PROPHET. 

translation  of  a  Persian  version'^  of  Ibn-Aasim  el-Kijfi's 
Tarikh,  or  "Book  of  Victories,"  After  telling  us  that 
Abu  jVIiisa  Alashari  invaded  Persia  under  the  Khallf 
Omar  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  hejira  (a.d.  640), 
pillaged  the  territory  of  Ahw^z,  and  proceeded  to  Siis, 
where  he  slew  the  governor,  a  Persian  prince,  named 
Shapiir,  the  son  of  Azermahan,  the  historian  continues : — 
"  Then  he  entered  the  castle  and  palace  of  that  Prince, 
and  seized  all  the  treasures  deposited  there  in  different 
places,  until  he  came  to  a  certain  chamber,  of  which 
the  door  was  strongly  fastened — a  leaden  seal  being 
affixed  to  the  lock.  Abti  Mtisa  inquired  from  the 
people  of  Sus  what  precious  article  was  guarded  with 
such  care  in  this  chamber  :  they  assured  him  that  he 
would  not  regard  it  as  a  desirable  object  of  plunder  ;  but 
his  curiosity  was  excited,  and  he  caused  the  lock  to  be 
broken  and  the  door  opened.  In  the  chamber  he  beheld 
a  stone  of  considerable  dimensions  hollowed  out  into  the 
form  of  a  coffin ;  and  in  this  the  body  of  a  dead  man, 
wrapped  in  a  shroud  or  winding-sheet  of  gold  brocade. 
The  head  was  uncovered.  Abu  Musa  and  his  attendants 
were  astonished  ;  for,  having  measured  the  nose,  they 
found  that  proportionably  this  dead  personage  must  have 
far  exceeded  in  stature  the  common  race  of  men.  The 
people  now  informed  Abii  Milsa  that  this  was  the  body 
of  an  eminent  sage,  who  formerly  resided  in  Ir^k  (Chaldsea 
or  Babylonia),  and  that  whenever  the  want  of  rain  occa- 
sioned a  famine  or  scarcity,  the  inhabitants  applied  to 
this  holy  man,  and  through  the  efficacy  of  his  prayers, 
obtained  copious  showers  from  heaven.  It  happened 
once  that  Sus  likewise  suffered  from  excessive  drought; 
and  the  people  in  distress  requested  that  their  neighbours 
would  aUow  this  venerable  personage  to  reside  a  few 

*  This  Persian  translation  was  made  from  the  original  Arabic,  about 
A  J).  120. 


DANIEL  THE  PROPHET.  319 

days  among  them,  expecting  to  derive  the  blessing  of 
rain  from  his  intercession  with  the  Almighty  ;  but  the 
Irakians  would  not  grant  this  favour.  Fifty  men  were 
then  deputed  by  the  people  of  Sus,  who  again  petitioned 
the  ruler  of  Irak,  saying,  '  Let  the  holy  personage  visit 
our  country,  and  do  thou  detain  the  fifty  men  until  his 
return  !'  These  terms  were  accepted,  and  the  holy  per- 
sonao'e  came  to  Sils,  where,  through  the  influence  of  his 
prayers,  rain  fell  abundantly,  and  saved  the  land  from 
famine  ;  but  the  inhabitants  would  not  permit  him  to 
return,  and  the  fifty  men  were  detained  as  hostages  in 
Ir^k  :  at  length  he  died.  Such,  said  those  who  accom- 
panied Abu  Musa,  is  the  history  of  this  dead  man.  The 
Arabian  general  then  inquired  by  what  name  so  extraor- 
dinary a  person  had  been  known  amongst  them  ?  They 
replied — '  The  people  of  Irak  called  him  Danyel  Hakim, 
or  Daniel  the  Sage.' 

"  After  this,  Abu  Milsa  remained  some  time  at  Sils,  and 
despatched  to  Omar,  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful,  an 
account  of  all  his  conquests  in  Khiizistan,  and  of  the 
various  treasures  which  had  fallen  into  his  possession  ; 
he  related  also  the  discovery  of  Daniel's  body.  When 
Omar  received  this  account,  he  demanded  from  his  chief 
officers  some  information  respecting  Daniel,  but  all  were 
silent  except  'AK,  on  whom  be  the  blessing  of  God  }  He 
declared  that  Daniel  had  been  a  prophet,  though  not  of 
the  highest  order  ;  that  in  ages  long  past  he  dwelt  with 
Bakhtnasser  (Nebuchadnezzar),  and  the  kings  who  suc- 
ceeded him  ;  and  'All  related  the  whole  history  of  Daniel, 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  with  aU  the  circumstances 
of  his  death.  Omar  then,  by  the  advice  of  'Ali,  caused  a 
letter  to  be  written,  directing  that  Abii  Milsa  should 
remove,  with  due  respect  and  religious  reverence,  the 
body  of  Daniel  to  some  place  where  the  people  of  Stis 
could  no  longer  enjoy  the  possession  of  it.     Abii  Musa, 


320  BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELa's  ACCOUNT. 

immediately  on  receipt  of  this  order,  obliged  the  people  of 
Siis  to  turn  the  stream,  which  supplied  their  city  with 
water,  from  its  natural  course  ;  then  he  brought  forth  the 
body  of  Daniel,  and  having  wrapped  another  shroud  over 
the  gold  brocade  above  described,  he  commanded  that  a 
grave  should  be  made  in  the  dry  channel  of  the  river, 
and  therein  he  deposited  the  prophet's  venerable  remains  ; 
the  grave  was  then  firmly  secured,  and  covered  with 
stones  of  considerable  size  ;  the  river  was  restored  to  its 
former  channel,  and  the  waters  of  Sfis  now  flow  over  the 
body  of  Daniel."-'' 

The  old  Jewish  writer,  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (a.d.  1160- 
1173),  gives  a  similar  account,  but  refers  the  burial  of 
Daniel's  body  to  Sanjar  Shah-ben-Shah  who  conquered 
Samarkand  in  1140,  and  died  in  1157.  He  states  that 
Shushan  contained  in  his  time  "  very  large  and  hand- 
some buildings  of  ancient  date.  It  had  seven  thousand 
Jewish  inhabitants,  with  fourteen  synagogues ;  in  front 
of  one  of  which  is  the  sepulchre  of  Daniel,  who  rests  in 
peace.  The  river  Ulai  divides  the  city  into  two  parts, 
which  are  connected  by  a  bridge ;  that  portion  of  it  which 
is  inhabited  by  the  Jews  contains  markets,  to  which  all 
trade  is  confined,  and  there  all  the  rich  dwell ;  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river  they  are  poor,  because  they  are 
deprived  of  the  above-mentioned  advantages,  and  have 
even  no  gardens  or  orchards.  These  circumstances  gave 
rise  to  jealousy,  which  was  fostered  by  the  belief  that  all 
honour  and  riches  originated  in  the  possession  of  the  re- 
mains of  the  prophet  Daniel,  who  rests  in  peace,  and  who 
was  buried  on  the  favoured  side  of  the  river.  A  request 
was  made  by  the  poor  for  permission  to  remove  the  se- 
pulclure  to  the  other  side,  but  it  was  rejected  ;  upon  which 
a  war  arose,  and  was  carried  on  between  the  two  parties 

*  See  Walpole's  "  Travels  in  Various  Countries."    At  vol.  ii.  p.  428  is  given 
the  above  translation  of  the  history  of  Daniel's  body  by  Sir  WiUiam  Ouseley. 


BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA  S  ACCOUNT.        321 

for  a  leno'tli  of  time.    This  strife  lasted  until  '  their  souls 

o 

became  loath/  and  they  came  to  a  mutual  agreement,  by 
which  it  was  arranged  that  the  coffin  which  contained 
Daniel's  bones  should  be  deposited  alternately  every  year 
on  either  side.  Both  parties  faithfully  adhered  to  this 
arrangement,  until  it  was  interrupted  by  the  interference 
of  Sanjar  Shah-ben-Shah,  who  governs  Persia  and  holds 
supreme  power  over  forty-five  of  its  kings."  ... 
"  When  this  great  emperor  Sanjar,  king  of  Persia,  came  to 
Shushan  and  saw  that  the  coffin  of  Daniel  was  removed 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  he  crossed  the  bridge  with  a 
very  numerous  retinue,  accompanied  by  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans, and  inquired  into  the  reason  of  these  proceedings. 
Upon  being  told  what  we  have  now  related,  he  declared  it 
to  be  derogatory  to  the  honour  of  Daniel,  and  commanded 
that  the  distance  between  the  two  banks  should  be 
exactly  measured,  that  Daniel's  coffin  should  be  deposited 
in  another  coffin  made  of  glass,  and  that  it  should  be  sus- 
pended from  the  centre  of  the  bridge  by  chains  of  iron. 
A  place  of  worship  was  erected  on  the  spot,  open  to  every 
one  who  desired  to  say  his  prayers,  whether  he  be  Jew  or 
Gentile  :  and  the  coffin  of  Daniel  is  suspended  from  the 
bridge  unto  this  very  day.  The  king  commanded  that, 
in  honour  of  Daniel,  nobody  should  be  allowed  to  fish  in 
the  river  one  mile  on  each  side  of  the  coffin."  ^'' 

The  modern  building  has  been  frequently  described  by 
travellers,  but  as  their  accounts  may  not  have  fallen  under 
the  notice  of  many  of  my  readers,  I  venture  on  giving 
the  followins;  sketch. 

The  reputed  tomb  of  the  prophet  Daniel  t  is  an  oblong 
edifice,  forming  one  side  of  a  large  walled  court,  through 
which  the  pilgrim  enters  to  reach  the  sacred  threshold. 

♦  See  the  article  «  Benjamin  of  Tudela,"  p.  105  of  Early  Travels  in  Pales- 
tine, published  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library, 
t  A  ground  plan  of  the  tomb  is  shewn  on  the  plan  of  the  Moimds. 


322  THE  MODERN  TOMB. 

Seen  from  across  the  little  river  Shaour,  which  flows  at  its 
foot,  enshrouded  in  a  dense  mass  of  date-trees,  konars, 
and  jungle,  its  conical  white  spire  rising  above  all,  is  a 
picturesque  object,  and  is  the  more  interesting  from  the 
associations  so  intimately  connected  with  its  origin.  En- 
tering beneath  a  low  doorway,  the  visitor  is  ushered  into 
the  great  court,  the  opposite  side  of  which  is  supplied 
with  mangers  and  rings  for  the  reception  of  horses  and 
beasts  of  burden,  for  it  is  unsafe  to  leave  them  outside,  on 
account  of  lions  and  other  wild  animals,  whicli  abound  in 
the  neighbourhood.  On  this  account,  too,  the  tomb  is 
the  frequent  resort,  for  the  night,  of  Arab  parties  on  a 
journey  from  the  deserts  to  the  seat  of  government,  and 
of  plimdering  parties  preparatory  to  their  morning  forays. 
Two  other  sides  of  the  court  are  occupied  by  a  low  arched 
portico  which  conducts  to  the  door  of  the  sanctuary.  This 
consists  of  two  chambers,  and  a  passage  between  them 
leading  to  a  third  apartment,  in  which  the  paraphernalia 
of  the  tomb  are  stored.  The  inner  room  is  extremely 
dark  and  dismal,  in  accordance  with  the  universal  feeling 
that  darkness  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  presence- 
chamber  of  death ;  here  stands  the  supposed  shrine, 
which,  in  the  dim  light  of  the  place,  appears  to  be  a  slab 
of  white  marble,  but  which  is  in  reality  only  polished 
cement.  It  is  enclosed  within  an  open  framework  of 
wood,  erected  at  a  sufficient  distance,  however,  to  admit 
of  passage  round  the  sepulchre,  the  floor  being  covered  with 
extremely  dirty  prayer-mats,  swarming  Avith  fleas.  These, 
and  a  few  old  lamps  of  rude  forms,  black  from  smoke 
and  grease,  constitute  the  whole  of  the  ordinary  furniture. 
Eeligion  in  the  East,  at  the  present  day,  certainly  does 
not  boast  of  much  outward  display  in  this  respect,  nor 
is  cleanliness  in  the  temple  esteemed  essential  to  purity 
of  worship.  The  externally  "whited  sepulchre"  is  no 
criterion  by  which  to  judge  of  its  internal  condition; 


SPIES  AND  THEIR  PROCEEDINGS.  323 

neither  is  the  repeated  washing  of  the  sanctified  seyid 
any  proof  of  his  religious  sincerity.  A  small  veranda  runs 
outside  the  wall  of  the  sanctuary,  overlooking  the  deep 
sluggish  stream  of  the  Shaour,  and  its  green  waters  mean- 
dering through  the  dense  mass  of  vegetation  on  its  banks. 

The  terrace  upon  the  roof  of  the  building  is  used  as  a 
sleeping  apartment  by  the  pilgrims  during  the  hot  weather, 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  it  completely  covered  with 
prostrate  sleeping  forms.  From  its  centre  rises  the  tall 
white  spire  which  denotes  the  character  of  the  edifice,  and 
partakes  of  the  usual  ornamental  features,  in  resemblance 
to  the  fir-cone,  before  alluded  to  in  this  volume  as  peculiar 
to  most  other  Oriental  tombs.  "^^  Beneath  the  sacred  cham- 
ber, but  without  communication  with  it,  is  a  vaulted 
room,  entered  from  a  doorway  on  the  side  of  the  Shaour, 
having  apertures  at  the  opposite  extremity,  through  which 
flows  a  cool  current  of  air.  This  was  cleared  of  the  filth 
which  encumbered  its  floor,  and  here  we  took  up  our 
quarters  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 

We  had,  however,  scarcely  established  ourselves  in  our 
agreeable  retreat,  on  the  morning  after  our  amval,  than 
we  were  disturbed  by  the  arrival  of  a  party  of  Liitis,t  or 
strolling  players,  and  a  huge  ugly  baboon,  which  was 
incited  to  play  its  antics  in  all  parts  of  the  building 
without  any  respect  for  its  extreme  sanctity.  Seeing 
the  little  deference  observed,  my  companion  imagined 
that  he  could  not  be  doing  harm  or  off'ending  the  pre- 
judices of  the  few  natives  around  us  by  skinning  and 
preserving,  at  the  door  of  our  cell,  a  porcupine  he  had 
just  shot.  While  engaged  in  this  occupation,  we  were 
surprised  by  three  strangers,  whose  green  turbans  indi- 
cated their  descent,  and  whose  countenances  exhibited 
intensity    of    bigotry   and    its    attendant    qualities    of 

•  See  page  35. 

t  L<iti  literally  means  "  a  thief,"  and  is  applied  to  any  low  character. 


324  SPIES  AND  THEIR  PROCEEDINGS. 

hatred  and  persecution.  They  walked  in  without  cere- 
mony, and  as  unceremoniously  requested  us  to  walk  out, 
which  we  quietly  and  politely,  but  positively  declined  to 
do.  The  chief  and  most  ill-favoured  of  the  tlu-ee  there- 
upon broke  forth  into  a  torrent  of  ejaculations  and  ex- 
clamations at  the  audacity  of  the  Franks  who  dared  to 
enter  and  defile  the  sanctuary  of  the  holy  Imam.  This, 
however,  had  no  effect  upon  us ;  we  retained  our  seats 
unmoved,  telling  them  that,  since  Daniel  was  esteemed 
a  prophet  by  Christians  as  well  as  by  Mussulmans, 
we  had  the  same  right  to  occupy  the  precincts  of 
the  tomb  as  themselves,  or  the  baboon  which  sat  upon 
the  terrace  above, — and  that,  moreover,  we  did  not  in- 
tend to  budge  one  inch  to  please  their  bigotry !  This 
unexpected  answer  had  the  proper  effect, — it  considerably 
cooled  their  tone,  which  now  sobered  down  to  the  wish 
that,  if  we  would  not  go  out  ourselves,  my  companion's 
unclean  beast  might  be  removed.  To  this,  of  course,  we 
wdlingly  complied,  when  it  was  explained  that  the  porcu- 
pine is  considered  "  nedjis." 

They  then  seated  themselves,  and  intimated  that  they 
were  sent  by  the  governor  of  Dizful  to  look  after  our 
safety  and  oblige  the  Arabs  to  supply  our  wants.  They, 
however,  brought  no  letters  from  Mirza  Zekki,  nor  did 
their  manner  afford  any  guarantee  that  their  words  were 
to  be  believed.  It  subsequently  proved  that  they  uttered  a 
tissue  of  falsehoods,  and  that  they  were  spies  of  the  priest- 
hood (who  had  got  wind  of  our  movements),  sent  to  keep 
watch  over  our  proceedings  and  conduct.  Their  mission 
we  speedily  divined  by  their  contradictory  replies  to  our 
questions,  and  the  cunning  attempts  to  extract  informa- 
tion from  us:  a  Persian  usually  overacts  the  part  he 
desires  to  perform.  The  bigotry  of  oiu:  visitors  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact,  that  they  would  neither  smoke, 
drink  tea,  nor  eat  in  our  presence, — and  their  manner 


THE  COUNCIL  OF  PRIESTS.  325 

soon  instilled  into  ourselves  the  most  thorongli  contempt 
for  them.  While  we  sat  they  sat;  when  we  proposed  at 
sunset  to  take  a  ride  they  must  needs  accompany  us ;  if 
we  visited  sheikh  Musad,  they  likewise  volunteered 
their  unwelcome  presence  ;  if  we  engaged  in  our  survey, 
they  purposely  got  in  the  way  of  our  work.  Finding, 
however,  that  they  could  not  by  fair  means  convict  us 
of  any  heinous  crime,  whereby  the  indignation  of  the 
priesthood  could  be  poured  forth  upon  us,  they  tried 
another  plan  to  effect  their  purpose. 

On  the  following  day,  Avhile  sitting  in  our  tents,  we 
were  surprised  to  see  a  dense  smoke  arise  from  the 
thicket  adjoining  the  tomb.  Our  enemies  had  suddenly 
disappeared,  but,  before  departing,  had  fired  the  brushwood 
in  order  to  give  some  shadow  of  truth  to  the  report  which 
they  took  every  pains  to  spread  on  their  return  to  Dizfill, 
— representing  that  we  had  taken  pigs  into  the  sepulchre 
and  defiled  it  in  sundry  and  various  ways, — that  we  had 
knocked  down  the  tomb, — placed  gunpowder  in  the  walls, 
— and  fired  the  grass  that  the  revered  and  sacred  edifice 
might  no  longer  exist !  All  Dizful,  as  may  well  be 
imagined,  was  in  a  furious  state  of  ferment,  and  ven- 
geance was  declared  against  the  sacrilegious  infidels  who 
had  dared  to  perpetrate  such  crimes!  A  full  conclave 
of  priests  was  held,  and  a  long  debate  ensued  as  to  the 
best  method  of  ridding  the  world  of  the  audacious 
strangers  who,  taking  advantage  of  their  friendly  in- 
troductions, had  violated  every  feeling  of  friendship. 
Many  applicants  presented  themselves  before  the  holy 
council,  stating  their  readiness,  their  anxiety  to  be  our 
executioners !  But  a  diflicidty  presented  itself  which 
induced  the  sacred  assembly  to  hesitate  before  leaping 
the  barrier.  We  were  in  the  service  of  the  Siiltan 
Englizi,  the  friend  of  the  Sh4h,  and  if  any  ill  happened 
to  us,  it  would  be  doubtless  called  to  account  for  its 


326  THREATS  OF  THE  ARABS. 

share  in  the  transaction.  The  fear  of  the  Shdh,  or  rather 
of  the  troops  of  Hissam-ed-dowlet/'  was  beginning  to 
gain  ground,  when,  as  good  luck  would  have  it,  one  of 
our  servants  was  caught  making  purchases  in  the  bazaars, 
and  hurried  off,  nolens  volens,  to  tlie  court.  He  boldly 
stated  what  he  knew  to  be  true,  namely :  that  some  per- 
sons had  set  fire  to  the  jungle  round  the  tomb,  but  that 
our  people,  himself  among  the  number,  had  been  instru- 
mental in  quenching  it,  and  that  the  tomb  stood  as  un- 
scathed as  before  our  arrival, — that  we  had  no  pigs, 
neither  had  we  defiled  nor  attempted  to  burn  or  blow  it 
up.  The  miijtehid,  or  chief  priest,  on  whom  the  re- 
sponsibility would  have  fallen,  thinking  it  best  to  be 
wise,  dismissed  the  council  with  the  remark  that  he  be- 
lieved us  "  not  guilty." 

The  feeling  of  violent  animosity  excited  against  the 
Firenghi,  however,  did  not  readily  subside :  a  report 
now  spread  that  we  had  come  to  dig  up  and  carry  ofi' 
the  bones  of  the  prophet,  and  the  ignorance  of  the 
people  fully  believed  it.  On  the  third  day  several  Arab 
sheikhs  paid  us  visits  to  satisfy  their  curiosity,  and  also 
to  intimate  to  our  people  that,  if  it  were  not  for  Suley- 
man  Khan,  our  throats  should  feel  the  sharpness  of  their 
swords.  In  order  to  do  away  with  the  suspicion  with 
which  we  were  regarded,  we  decided  on  stating  openly 
the  true  object  of  our  visit  and  on  asldng  the  sheikhs 
for  workmen.  This  frankness  produced  a  good  impres- 
sion, and  several  promises  were  given  to  aid  us,  never 
however,  to  be  fulfilled,  because  they  were  jealous-  of  our 
having  other  plans,  and  afraid  of  our  searching  -ft  the 
relics  of  the  prophet,  which,  it  is  weU  known,  are  not 
deposited  in  the  tomb. 

A  few  words  concerning  the  Arabs  of  this  region  may 

*  The  honorary  title  applied  to  Suleyman  Khdn,  meaning,  "  the  sword 
of  the  government." 


THE  'ALf  KETHfjR  ARABS.  327 

not  be  unacceptable.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
the  plains  around  Shush  are  perfectly  desolate,  and  not  a 
human  being  is  to  be  seen,  except  now  and  then  solitary 
parties  wending  their  way  to  and  from  the  shrine.  In 
early  spring,  however,  the  Arabs  flock  to  the  banks  be- 
tween the  Kerkhah  and  the  Diz  for  the  rich  pasturage 
which  everywhere  prevails  around  the  ancient  ruins.  From 
the  top  of  the  great  mound,  the  black  tents  and  flocks  of  the 
*Ali  Kethir  Arabs  may  then  be  seen  studding  the  land- 
scape, at  times  half-bmied  in  the  luxuriant  abundance 
of  the  grass.  According  to  their  own  account,  the  tribes  of 
the  'All  Kethir  originally  came  from  Nedjid,  in  the  centre 
of  Ai'abia,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago.  At  first 
they  were  encouraged  by  the  Persian  government,  which, 
up  to  the  time  of  Feth  'All  Shah,  gave  them  presents,  as  an 
inducement  to  their  settling  and  cultivating  the  land. 
Gradually  this  gratuity  became  smaller  and  smaller,  until 
it  was  wholly  cancelled,  and  the  scale  turned  on  the  op- 
posite side  by  Mohammed  Shah,  under  whom  tribute 
was  exacted.  This  was  gradually  increased  in  amount, 
and  2500  tomans  (about  £1250)  were  being  th?n  paid. 
The  number  of  families,  in  1850,  probably  amounted  to 
about  15,000,  and  were  placed  under  a  sheikh  of  their  own 
tribe,  who  was  taxed  according  to  the  amount  of  tribute 
he  could  command.  It  is  to  be  doubted,  however,  whether, 
instead  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  this  tribe  has  not 
been  settled  in  these  regions  ever  since  the  Arab  conquest 
of  Persia.  Being  of  the  Sheah  sect,  their  intermarriage  with 
the  inhabitants  of  Dizfiil  has  materially  altered  their  caste 
of  countenance,  which  now  partakes  more  of  the  Persian 
than  the  Arab  character.  Tliis  change  could  scarcely,  I 
imagine,  have  taken  place  within  so  short  a  period.  Not 
only,  too,  have  they  lost  their  national  features,  but, 
through  continual  intercourse  with  the  bigoted  Persians, 
they  have  imbibed  the  worse  passions  and  qualities  of  that 


328  AN  ACCIDENT. 

race  in  addition  to  their  own.  I  have  invariably  found, 
that  the  Ai-ab  tribes,  under  Persian  domination,  have  lost 
the  noble  virtues  of  their  Bedouin  ancestors,  and  that  they 
are  cunning,  and  deceitful,  without  truth  or  shame  ; — but, 
of  all  otliers,  the  'All  Kethir  boast  of  the  most  detestable 
character,  and  are  least  to  be  trusted  by  strangers. 

Notwithstanding  their  promises,  workmen  were  not 
forthcoming  for  the  excavations.  Whether  this  system 
of  hanging  out  false  colou.rs  originated  Avith  themselves, 
or  whether  they  were  bribed  by  the  priests,  I  could  never 
ascertain;  but  one  thing  is  certain — ^we  left  Shfish  with- 
out opening  a  trench. 

Our  time  was  spent  in  much  the  same  manner  every 
day  while  we  remained  upon  the  ruins.  In  the  cool  of 
the  morning  we  were  occupied  in  laying  down  our  plan ; 
the  mid-day  sun  drove  us  into  the  chamber  under  the 
tomb,  where  we  passed  the  hours  as  best  we  could  ;  and, 
when  the  heat  had  abated,  we  emerged  from  our  den  like 
jackals  and  wild  beasts,  and  exercised  ourselves  by  riding 
about  the  neighbourhood.  In  one  of  our  rides  we  acci- 
dentally encountered  a  herd  of  about  forty  wild  pigs, 
varying  from  the  size  of  a  monster  boar,  as  big  as  a  fiUl- 
grown  donkey,  to  that  of  a  sucking  pig  a  few  weeks  old. 
It  was  becoming  dusk,  but  ardour  for  sport  induced  us 
to  pursue  them,  in  doing  which  my  clumsy  horse  tripping 
over  a  ridge  of  earth,  turned  a  complete  somersault,  and 
fell  heavily  on  my  ribs,  giving  me  a  serious  hurt. 

On  being  assisted  into  camp,  a  message  was  delivered 
from  Sheikh  Mtisa'd  to  say  that  several  parties  of  Beni 
Lam  Arabs  had  been  seen  prowling  about ;  that  he  would 
not  be  answerable  for  the  consequences  if  we  persisted  in 
remaining  upon  the  mounds ;  and  that  after  that  night 
he  could  not  undertake  to  send  watchmen  to  guard  our 
little  camp,  seeing  that  they  might  be  required  to  defend 
his  own.     We  at  first  thought  this  a  ruse  to  get  rid  of 


OBLIGED  TO  llETEEAT.  329 

as,  but,  on  the  following  day,  his  son  Ha'waychum  came 
with  a  more  urgent  message,  to  which  we  deemed  it  ad- 
visable to  attend.  I  gave  the  order  for  our  tents  to  be 
struck  and  removed  to  the  sheikh's  camp,  situated  about 
two  miles  distant. 

\^Tien  we  were  riding  along  together,  HaVaychum 
informed  us  that,  as  the  harvest  was  now  concluded,  the 
stream  of  water,  conveyed  by  a  canal  from  the  river 
Kerkhah  to  the  vicinity  of  the  ruins  (which  is  sweet  and 
pure,  while  that  of  the  Shaour  is  so  notorious  for  its 
unwholesome  qualities  that  the  Arabs  never  drink  of  it 
when  other  water  is  procurable)  would  be  cut  off  in  a 
few  days,  and  that  afterwards  we  might  obtain  it  from 
whence  we  pleased.  He  had  been  tolerably  civil  on  our 
first  arrival,  but  now,  either  incited  by  the  priesthood, 
or  believing  the  cuiTent  reports  concerning  our  stay 
upon  the  ruins,  he  became  extremely  saucy,  telling  me, 
in  a  loud  tone,  that  "  Sheikh  Musa'd  had  no  instructions 
concerning  us — ^he  was  not  answerable  for  our  safety — 
the  land  was  theirs  and  not  Hissam-ed-dowet's ; — who 
was  he,  and  who  was  the  Shah '?  "Were  the  'All  Kethir 
to  be  accounted  slaves  or  Arabs  1"  It  is  well  known 
among  travellers  that  firmness  and  a  show  of  superiority 
are  a  sure  method  of  gaining  the  respect  of  an  Oriental, 
and  that  an  appeal  to  his  hospitality  is  seldom  lost  upon 
the  sensitive  feelino;s  of  an  Arab.  Although  sufferinor 
great  pain,  I  could  not  refrain  from  giving  utterance  to  a 
somewhat  severe  rebuke,  and  therefore  demanded  "  if  this 
were  a  specimen  of  the  far-famed  Arab  hospitality  1  We 
had  travelled  among  the  great  Shammar,  the  Muntefik, 
ay,  and  among  even  the  wild  Maddn,  and  everywhere 
been  received  with  unbounded  cordiality.  Were  strangers 
esteemed  beasts  or  dogp.  among  the  small  tribe  of  the 
'AK  Kethir,  that  we  pjQould  be  treated  in  such  an  illi- 
beral manner  1    As  guests  of  the  Shah  we  should  lay 


330  FORAY  OF  THE  BENI  LAM. 

our  complaint  of  the  treatment  received  before  Hissam- 
ed-dowlat,  and  leave  liim  to  deal  with  Arabs  who  were 
become  worse  than  either  Turks  or  Persians!"  Sapng 
which,  I  directed  my  horse's  head  towards  Dizftil,  adding 
that,  "on  our  next  return,  we  should  come  to  excavate 
in  the  mounds  in  spite  of  either  'Mi  Kethir  or  Seyid, 
armed  with  a  firman  from  the  Sh^h  and  an  order  from 
the  governor,  if  the  latter  were  supposed  to  have  more 
effect  upon  them!"  This  high  tone  produced  a  sensible 
chanoe  in  the  manner  of  our  host,  who  now  entreated 
forgiveness,  and  prayed  me  to  accompany  him  to  his 
father's  camp  "  where  we  should  find  that  the  'Ali  Kethir 
were  still  Arabs,  and  glad  to  offer  the  shelter  of  their 
tents  to  a  stranger."  At  length  I  consented,  and  gave 
him  my  hand  in  token  of  reconciliation. 

The  change  of  quarters  from  the  summit  of  the  mound 
to  the  level  of  the  plain  was  naturally  accompanied  by 
an  augmentation  of  heat.  Finding  the  temperature  and 
closeness  of  my  little  tent  on  the  following  day  unen- 
durable, I  determined  on  setting  out  for  Dizful  as  soon 
as  the  moon  rose  early  the  next  morning.  Our  plan, 
moreover,  being  completed,  there  was  no  further  object 
to  be  attained  by  a  longer  exposure.  About  midnight 
we  were  aroused  by  a  tremendous  commotion  in  the 
Arab  camp.  The  report  that  the  Beni  Lam  were  in  the 
neighbourhood  proved  true,  for  they  came  quietly  and 
stole  all  the  corn  our  hosts  had  buried  on  the  side  of  the 
encampment  opposite  to  that  at  which  our  tents  were 
pitched,  making  off  with  their  booty  before  they  were 
detected.  Superstitious  as  our  hosts  were,  they,  no 
doubt,  attributed  their  ill  luck  to  our  presence,  and  were 
extremely  gratified  at  seeing  our  departure. 

After  some  difficulty  the  governor  of  Dizful  succeeded 
in  hirina;  for  me  a  small  house  near  the  tomb  of  Imam 
Shdh  Kiibend,  a  short  distance  above  the  town,  over- 


DEFEAT  OF  THE  'ALf  KETHfR.  331 

looldng  a  bend  of  the  river.  A  cool  serdab  was  ex- 
cavated in  the  gravel  cliff,  and  the  terrace  on  the  house- 
top enjoyed  every  welcome  breath  of  air  which  blew 
down  the  stream  at  night.  Here,  under  gTOUiid  during 
the  entii'e  day,  and  upon  the  terrace  from  sunset  to  sun- 
rise, I  spent  a  miserable  month ; — the  injury  sustained 
by  the  fall  of  my  horse  was  so  painful  that  I  was  obUged 
to  lie  quiet  and  abstain  from  excitement  of  any  kind. 
Dizful  did  not  furnish  either  a  doctor,  a  leech,  or  a 
blister ;  but,  thanks  to  a  good  constitution,  a  small  medi- 
cine chest,  and  careful  diet,  I  succeeded  in  keeping  down 
fever  and  in  gradually  overcoming  the  effects  of  the 
accident. 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  governor  and  the  muj- 
tehid  over  the  people  and  priesthood  served  to  allay  the 
popular  irritation,  while  our  return  from  Shush  was 
esteemed  a  great  triumph  and  a  proof  of  the  ^jower 
exercised  by  the  Prophet.  The  seven  ]ions,  supposed  to 
guard  his  tomb,  had,  it  was  reported,  threatened  to  devour 
the  infidels  unless  they  made  off  with  all  speed. 

A  few  days  after  our  return  to  Dizful,  news  ar- 
rived from  Shush  that  a  skirmish  had  taken  place  be- 
tween the  Beni  Lam  and  'All  Kethir.  A  party  of  the 
former  were  seen  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Kerkhah 
by  om-  late  hosts,  one  hundred  of  whom  crossed  the  river 
and  were  defeated,  one  man  being  killed,  several  wounded, 
and  a  dozen  prisoners,  with  the  loss  of  all  their  highly- 
valued  mares.  Ha'waychum  left  a  beautiful  white  mare 
in  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  and  only  saved  his  life 
by  swimming  the  Kerkhah. 

At  length  Colonel  Williams  and  the  rest  of  his  party, 
after  an  extended  delay  at  Mohammerah  in  an  atmosphere 
impregnated  with  malaria  and  sickness,  joined  us  at 
Dizful,  and  in  a  few  days  we  were  luxuriating  in  a  com- 
paratively cool  climate,   amid  the  oak  groves  of  Mun- 


332  SULEYMAN  KHAN. 

gerrah,^'  in  the  Lfirist^n  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of 
five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  But  even  at  that 
altitude  the  thermometer  frequently  rose  to  107°  Fahr, 
in  the  shade. 

It  would  f^ir  exceed  the  limits  of  this  work  were  I  to 
enter  into  an  account  of  the  highly  interesting  journey 
performed  by  the  Commission  to  Kermanshah,  the  rock- 
sculptures  of  Bistitdn  and  Hamadan,  Isfahan,  the  ruins 
of  Pasargadae  and  Persepolis,  Shirdz,  and  the  Mammasenl 
Lurs.  Let  it  suffice  that,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  we 
once  more  descended  to  the  plains  of  Dizftil,  where  the 
Hissam-ed-dowlet,  Suleyman  Khan,  was  encamped  with  a 
strong  Persian  force — a  necessary  instrument  for  main- 
taining the  Shah's  influence  among  the  turbulent  gentry 
of  KJiuzistan.  This  Christian  governor  of  a  Mohamme- 
dan province  was  an  extraordinary  man,  and  it  is,  as  I 
have  said,  difficult  to  understand  how  he  sustained  his 
position  among  the  l)igoted  community.  He  was  a  jolly, 
stout  old  gentleman,  and,  perhaps,  if  his  red  nose  did  not 
belie  him,  addicted  to  veritable  shiraz,  or  something 
stronger.  He  was  full  of  fun  and  courage;  but  the 
sun  of  his  greatness  had  well  nigh  set;  the  days  of  his 
dignity  were  numbered.  In  an  evil  hour  he  was  ordered 
to  quell  an  insurrection  at  Behbeh^n,  in  the  adjoining 
district  of  Firuz  Mirza,  the  Shah's  uncle,  which  the  prince 
had  failed  to  do.  Suleyman  Khan  was  successful,  and 
the  prince,  indignant  that  a  ghyawr  had  outdone  himself, 

*  At  this  place  we  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  one  of  our  little  party — 
Mr  Algernon  Wood,  first  attache  to  the  British  Embassy  at  Constantinople, 
and  Secretary  of  the  Commission.  An  imprudent  bath  in  a  cold  mountain 
stream,  when  heated,  brought  on  a  violent  attack  of  bronchitis,  which, 
together  with  extreme  lassitude  from  previous  iUness  at  i\Iohammerah, 
resulted  in  the  untoward  event.  I  cannot  here  omit  a  tribute  to  the 
memory  of  one  whose  affectionate  and  honourable  qualities  were  so  de- 
servedly esteemed  by  all  his  acquaintance.  His  abilities  as  a  linguist,  and 
knowledge  of  Oriental  character,  rendered  his  death  a  great  loss  to  the 
Comnii;-.  ion. 


RETURN  TO  SUSA.  333 

intrigued  to  effect  the  discharge  of  his  successful  com- 
petitor from  the  office  he  filled  with  such  abihty.  The 
old  gentleman  complained  severely,  and  with  justice,  of 
this  conduct,  and  was  soon  about  to  deliver  up  the  reins 
of  government. 

At  the  time  of  our  visit,  he  was  just  recovering  from  a 
severe  accident  which  had  occurred  to  him  in  returning 
from  his  late  conquest ;  being  exceedingly  stout,  he  travelled 
in  a  Eiu-opean  carriage,  but,  being  uj)set  during  a  dark 
night,  the  wheels  passed  over  his  hips,  and,  in  the  con- 
fusion, his  own  guard  managed  to  gallop  over  and  other- 
wise seriously  injure  him. 

Aware  of  the  difficulty  attending  the  commencement 
of  excavations  at  Shush,  and  desirous,  for  the  sake  of 
science,  that  the  opportunity  of  the  stay  made  by  the 
Commission  in  those  regions  should  not  be  lost,  Colonel 
Williams  wrote  to  Colonel  Shell,  H.B.M.'s  ambassador  at 
Teheran,  requesting  his  influence  in  obtaining  a  fii-man 
from  the  Shah.  The  application  was  successful,  and  the 
document,  giving  the  requisite  permission,  was  dul)^  re- 
ceived. Lieutenant  Glascott  and  myself  formed  the  van- 
guard of  the  party  in  taking  possession  of  our  old  ground 
on  the  summit  of  the  great  mound,  accompanied  by  two  of 
Suleyman  Khan's  officers,  with  an  order  for  Sheikh 
Musa'd  to  attend  our  orders.  His  tents  were  pitched 
upon  the  eastern  portion  of  the  ruins,  and  he  soon  obeyed 
the  siunmons,  with  four  watchmen,  and  a  lamb  as  a 
present,  besides  a  host  of  apologies  for  the  smallness  of 
his  gift !  It  occurred  to  me  that  this  was  a  different 
reception  to  that  which  Churchill  and  myself  experienced 
only  eight  months  previously,  when  this  same  sheikh 
threatened  us  with  all  kinds  of  torments  and  deaths.  I 
reminded  him  of  my  promise  to  revisit  Shush  with  a 
firman  from  the  Shah  ;  strangely  enough,  the  words,  then 
spoken  at   random,  now  proved  true.      Musa'd  replied 


334  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  ELCHI. 

that,  in  one  respect,  a  Firenghi  is  unlike  a  Persian — lie 
invariably  keeps  his  word !  This  was  a  decided  improve- 
ment in  feeling.  He  was  anxious  to  know  what  he 
should  bring  as  a  present  to  the  elchi,  and  whether  he 
would  be  contented  with  a  mare  ?  I  told  him  that  "  the 
elchi  would  accept  of  no  presents — all  he  required  was 
good  conduct  from  the  'Ali  Kethlr,  and  he  might  rest 
assured  that,  if  such  were  shewn,  the  elchi  would  not  fail 
to  represent  it  to  the  proper  quarters." 

A  few  days  later,  Colonel  Williams  and  the  whole 
English  party  were  encamped  upon  the  ruins.  The  great 
mound  was,  I  thought,  more  imposing  than  on  my  pre- 
vious visit,  but  the  old  tomb  looked  the  picture  of 
desolation  and  misery,  the  trees  around  had  lost  their 
green  leaves,  and  the  white  spire  stood  out  prominent  and 
cold  against  the  dark  rain-bearing  clouds.  Elsewhere, 
however,  there  was  an  air  of  freshness,  a  tint  of  green 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  surrounding  plain  indica- 
tive of  the  near  ap];)r  a'h  of  spring;  altogether  it  was  a 
different  scene  to  that  universal  and  glaring  sheet  of 
yellow  which  greeted  our  former  arrival. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Early  History  of  Susa — From  the  days  of  Cyrus,  Susa  the  Winter- 
residence  of  the  Persian  Kings — Ahasuenis  identical  with  Xerxes — 
Immense  wealth  found  by  Alexander — Power  of  Susa  declines — Its 
Kuins  at  the  present  day — ^Abundance  of  Wild  Beasts — Imposing 
aspect  of  Susa  in  early  times. 

Whether  we  regard  it  in  a  geographical,  historical,  or 
scriptural  point  of  view,  there  are  few  places  throughout 
the  East  more  replete  with  interest  than  that  which  is 
known  to  us  by  the  various  denominations  of  Shushan, 
Susa,  Siis,  or  Shush.  Of  its  primitive  history  we,  of 
course,  know  little ;  but  the  records  of  antiquity  point  to 
its  origin  amid  the  dim  obscurity  of  oral  tradition. 

It  would  appear  that  Elam,  the  son  of  Shem,  like  the 
rest  of  the  early  descendants  of  Noah,  founded  a  kingdom 
in  the  region  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  the  cradle 
of  mankind, — this,  at  least,  is  the  inference  from  the  men- 
tion made,  in  Genesis  xiv.,  of  Chedorlaomer,  King  of  Elam, 
who,  in  alliance  with  four  neighbouring  monarch  s,  ex- 
tended his  conquests  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  during 
the  time  of  the  patriarch  Abraham.  We  read,  moreover, 
in  Ezra  iv.  9,  that  the  Elamites  were  included  among  the 
dependencies  of  the  Persian  Empire  ;  and,  in  Daniel  viii. 
2,  that  Shushan,  the  palace,  was  situated  in  the  province 
of  Elam,  which  name  is  undoubtedly  likewise  preserved 
in  "  Elymais,"  the  title  by  which  the  Greek  and  Roman 
authors  designated  a  portion  of  ancient  Susiana.     We  are, 


336  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  SUSA. 

therefore,  fairly  justified  in  regarding  the  site  of  Susa  as 
the  original  capital  of  the  Elamites.  At  one  time,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  seat  of  Chedorlaomer  was  the  great 
city  of  Kar  Duniyas,  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions as  the  metropolis  of  the  lower  country,  and  that  it 
occupied  the  after-position  of  Susa;"'  at  another  time,  phi- 
lologists considered  the  name  of  Susa  as  a  slight  modifi- 
cation of  Cush,  and  referred  the  early  colonization  of  the 
surroundino;  reoion  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
the  Hamite  descendants  of  Noah,  in  accordance  with  the 
theory  already  mentioned  in  this  work.t  Then  again, 
HerodotusJ  assigns  the  foundation  of  Susa  to  the  Ethio- 
pian Memnon,  who  went  to  the  assistance  of  Priam,  at 
the  siege  of  Troy;  and  the  same  authority  states  that 
after  him,  the  city  was  called  Memnonia.  Lastly,  the 
Persian  annals  give  the  honour  of  its  foundation  to  Hou- 
shenk,  the  grandson  of  Keyumerss,  the  second  king  of  the 
early  Pishdadian  dynasty.  AU  these  discrepancies,  how- 
ever, serve  to  prove  the  early  antiquity  and  greatness 
of  the  ancient  Susa.§ 

It  is  not  until  the  time  of  Ashur-bani-pal,  who  reigned 
in  Assyria  about  650  B.C.,  that  we  find  any  positive  his- 
torical mention  of  the  place  under  its  subsequent  name 
of  Shushan.  Upon  the  bas-reliefs  of  that  monarch,  at 
Nineveh,  are  detailed  the  conquest  of  Susiana  under 
the  name  of  "Madaktu,"  and   the  taking  of    the  city 

"  "  Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,"  by  Sir  H.  Eawlinson.  See  Twenty- 
ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.     1852. 

t  Page  96.  One  of  the  royal  names  occurring  at  Susa,  and  on  monuments 
along  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  Tirhak — the  same  title  as 
that  of  the  Ethiopian  prince  Tirhakah,  who  warred  with  Sennacherib  (2 
Kings  xix.  9 ;  Isa.  xxxvii.  9).  Susa  appears  to  have  been  the  head-quartei'S 
of  the  true  Cushites. 

%  V.  53,  54  ;  viii.  151. 

§  The  magnificence  and  importance  of  ancient  Susa  are  to  be  likewise  in- 
feiTed  from  its  representation  upon  the  embi-oidered  palUum,  or  shawl,  of 
Alcisthenes  of  Sybaris,  described  in  Aristotle's  Memorabilia. 


EAELY  HISTORY  OF  SUSA.  337 

"  Shuslian,"  a  ground  plan  of  which  appears  upon  the 
sculptures.^' 

The  prominence  given  to  this  subject  shews  that  a  for- 
midable rival  of  "  Nineveh,  that  great  city,"  existed  in  the 
south-east,  when,  at  the  summit  of  her  greatness  and 
renown,  she  held  Babylon  under  her  sway.  Great  con- 
fusion exists  in  our  histories  of  events  subsequently  to 
this  period,  but  it  seems  probable  that,  when  Nabopolasser, 
in  625  B.C.,  revolted  against  Assyrian  dominion,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Babylon,  he  likewise  seized  Susiana  as 
a  tributary  province.  It  was  apparently  in  this  condition 
when,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of  Neriglissor,  king  of 
Babylon,  554  B.C.,  Abradates,  king  of  Susa,  overcome  by 
gratitude  to  Cyrus  for  the  protection  offered  to  his  wife, 
passed  over  with  his  forces  to  the  Persians,  and  became 
the  firm  ally  of  the  conqueror.  Cyrus,  on  the  death  of 
Abradates,  at  the  battle  of  Thymbra,  a  few  years  latei', 
according  to  Xenophon,t  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  province  of  Susiana,  and  from  that  time 
Susa  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  history.  But  here  a 
difl&cidty  occurs  in  reconciling  the  Scriptural  and  profane 
accounts  of  the  period.  From  the  book  of  Daniel  J  we 
are  led  to  conclude  that  Susa  was  once  more  restored  to- 
the  King  of  Babylon,  which  might  have  taken  place  by 
truce  about  the  time  of  the  marriage  of  Cyrus,  and  of  the 
accession  of  Belshazzar  to  the  throne  of  Babylon.     How- 

*  See  page  366.  Mr  Layard,  at  p.  445  et  seq.  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  gives 
an  interesting  description  of  this  monarch's  bas-reliefs  (upon  which  the 
above  names  occur),  discovered  in  the  palace  of  his  grandfather  Sennacherib. 
A  palace,  wholly  erected  by  Ashur-bani-pal,  was  afterwards  discovered  and 
partially  explored  by  Mr  Hormuzd  Bassam,  in  one  chamber  of  which  was 
a  series  of  sculptures,  in  excellent  preservation,  recording  the  conquest  ot 
Susiana.  The  most  artistic  productions  of  this  king — the  chef-d'oeuvres  oi 
Assyrian  sculpture — were  obtained  by  myself  from  the  lower  story  of  the 
same  palace,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

t  Cyrop.,  V.  4,  &c. 

X  Daniel  viii.  1,  2. 


338  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  SUSA. 

ever  this  might  be,  we  learn  that  a  royal  palace  existed 
there  "  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Belshazzar," 
for  Daniel  saw  in  a  vision  that  he  "was  atSJnishan  in  the 
palace,  which  is  in  the  province  of  Elam/'^''  It  has  been 
attempted  to  prove  that  there  were  two  cities  of  this  name 
in  the  province  of  Susiana : — one,  the  Shuslian  of  Scripture 
in  the  Bakhtiyari  mountains  ;  the  other,  the  Susa  of  the 
Greeks.  It  was  supposed  that  the  Scriptural  expression, 
"  Shushan  the  palace,"  was  indicative  of  a  distinction  from 
some  other  city  of  the  same  name,t  but  the  reasoning 
was  based  on  fallacious  groimds,  which  it  is  not  here 
necessary  to  dilate  upon.  That  Shushan  and  Susa  are  one 
and  the  same,  we  learn  from  the  agreement  of  Josephus 
with  Scripture.  He  mentions  a  famous  edifice  built  by 
Daniel  at  Susa  in  the  manner  of  a  castle,  which,  the  Jewish 
historian  adds,  was  remaining  in  his  time,  and  had  been 
finished  with  such  wonderful  art  that  even  then  it  seemed 
as  fresh  and  beautiful  as  if  only  newly  built.  "  Within 
the  edifice,"  he  continues,  "  was  the  place  where  the  Per- 
sian and  Parthian  kings  used  to  be  buried  ;  and,  for  the 
sake  of  the  founder,  the  keeping  of  it  was  committed  to 
one  of  the  Jewish  nation  even  to  that  day."  It  is  true 
that  the  copies  of  Josephus,  now  extant,  place  this  build- 
ing at  Ecbatana  in  Media ;  but  St  Jerome,  who  also  gives 
an  account  of  it,  and  professes  to  do  so,  word  for  word, 
out  of  Josephus,  places  it  in  Susa  in  Persia.  Josephus 
calls  this  building  Baris — the  same  name  by  which 
Daniel  himself  distinguishes  the  castle  or  palace  of  Shu- 
shan :  for  what  we  tr^mslate,  at  SJmshan  in  the  palace,  is 
in  the  original,  Besh  Shushan  ha  Birah.\  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  Daniel  might  have  erected  an  edifice  at 
Susa,  because,  in  the  reign  of  Belshazzar,  he  was  evidently 

*  Daniel  viii.  1,  2. 

t  Journal  of  the  Geogr.  Society,  vol.  ix.  p.  85. 

X  Ker  Porter's  Travels,  ii.  411-414.    Jose]jhus  Antiq.  x.  12,  which  author 
(iv.  114)  also  calls  the  fortress  at  Jerusalem  '•  The  Castle  of  Earls." 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  SUSA.  339 

in  office, — ^probably  governor  of  the  city, — since  be  tells 
us  that  be  "did  tbe  kino's  business."'"' 

o 

From  tbe  time  of  C^rus,  Susa  became  tbe  chosen 
winter-seat  of  the  Persian  kings,  and  was  richly  embel- 
lished by  succeeding  monarchs.  Under  the  sway  of  the 
Achoemenian  dynasty,  it  usurped  the  greatness  of  its 
former  rivals,  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  Strabot  informs 
us  that  "the  building  of  Susa,  its  palaces,  walls,  and 
temples,  was  similar  to  that  of  Babylon,  of  bricks  and 
cement,"  referring  doubtless  to  the  period  before  the  reign 
of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  because  we  have,  as  will 
be  presently  shewn,  positive  proof  that  marble  structures 
were  erected  by  that  king.  It  is  certainly  to  these  edifices 
that  Pliny  alludes,  |  when  he  attributes  the  foundation 
of  Susa  to  Darius.  The  estimation  in  which  it  was  held 
by  neighbouring  states  may  be  gathered  from  the  remark- 
able speech  of  Aristagoras  to  Cleomenes  King  of  Sparta, 
when  the  former  wished  to  engage  him  as  an  ally  of  the 
lonians  against  Darius  : — "  Susa,  where  the  Persian 
monarch  occasionally  resides,  and  where  his  treasures  are 
deposited, — make  yourself  master  of  this  city,  and  you 
may  vie  in  influence  with  Jupiter  himself!  "§ 

Shushan  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture at  this  period,  in  connexion  with  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  One  of  the  most  interesting  episodes  in  the 
history  of  the  great  Persian  capital  is  that  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Esther,  where  the  Jewish  maiden  is  elevated 
to  the  queenly  dignity,  and,  by  her  influence  over  the 
mind  of  the  king  Ahasuerus,l|  enables  her  captive  coun- 

*  Daniel  viii.  27.  t  L.  16.  :  Lib.  vi.,  ch.  27. 

§  Herodotus,  Terps.  49. 

II  Almost  every  Medo-Pcrsian  king  from  Cyaxares  I.  down  to  Artaxerxes 
in.  (Ochus)  has  in  tui-n  been  advanced  as  the  Ahasuerus  of  Esther.  An 
article  in  "Kitto's  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  Literature"  so  admirably  sums  up 
the  (Question  in  favour  of  the  Xerxes  of  Greek  authors,  that  I  cannot  I'e- 


340  AHASUERUS  OR  XERXES. 

tiymen  to  defend  themselves  througliout  tlie  kingdom 
aoainst  the  irrevocable  decree  of  that  cruel  mt)uarch, 
"  Thus  the  Jews  smote  all  their  enemies  with  the  stroke 
of  the  sword,  and  slaughter  and  destruction,  and  did  what 
they  would  unto  those  that  hated  them.  And  in  Shushan 
the  palace  the  Jews  slew  and  destroyed  five  hundred 
men  ;  "*  and  in  the  king's  provinces  were  no  fewer  than 
seventy-five  thousand  of  their  enemies  slain. 

It  was  from  Shushan  or  Susa  that  the  same  monarch, 
under  the  Greek  name  of  Xerxes,  set  out  on  his  ill-fated 

frain  from  quoting  the  following  rather  lengthy  extract : — "  On  the  ground 
of  moral  resemblance  to  that  tyrant  (Ahasuerus),  every  trait  leads  us  to 
Xerxes.  The  king  who  scourged  and  fettered  the  sea  ;  who  beheaded  his 
engineers  because  the  elements  destroyed  their  bridge  over  the  Hellespont ; 
who  so  ruthlessly  slew  the  eldest  son  of  Pythius  because  his  father  besought 
him  to  leave  him  one  sole  support  of  his  declining  years  ;  who  dishonoured 
the  remains  of  the  valiant  Leonidas  ;  and  who  beguiled  the  shame  of  his 
defeat  by  such  a  course  of  sensuality,  that  he  publicly  offered  a  reward  to 
the  inventor  of  a  new  pleasure — is  just  the  despot  to  divorce  his  queen, 
because  she  would  not  expose  herself  to  the  gaze  of  drunken  revellers  ;  is 
just  the  despot  to  devote  a  whole  people,  his  subjects,  to  an  indiscriminate 
massacre  ;  and,  by  way  of  preventing  that  evil,  to  restore  them  the  right  of 
self-defence,  and  thus  to  sanction  their  slaughtering  thousands. 

There  are  also  remarkable  coincidences  of  date  between  the 
history  of  Xerxes  and  that  of  Ahasuerus.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  the 
latter  gave  a  grand  feast  to  his  nobles,  which  lasted  one  hundred  and  eighty 
days  (Esth.  i.  3)  ;  the  former,  in  his  third  year,  also  assembled  his  chief 
officers  to  deliberate  on  the  invasion  of  Greece  (Herod,  vii.  8).  Nor  would 
we  wonder  to  find  no  nearer  agreement  in  the  two  accounts  than  is 
expressed  in  the  mere  fact  of  the  nobles  being  assembled.  The  two  rela- 
tions are  quite  compatible  ;  each  writer  only  mentioning  that  aspect  of  the 

event  which  had  interest  for  him Again  Ahasuerus 

married  Esther,  at  Shushan,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  :  in  the  same 
year  of  his  reign  Xerxes  returned  to  Susa  with  the  mortification  of  his  defeat, 
and  sought  to  forget  himself  in  pleasure  ; — not  an  unlikely  occasion  for 
that  quest  for  fair  virgins  for  the  hdrem  (Esth.  ii.  2).  Lastly,  the  tribute 
imposed  on  the  land  and  isles  of  the  sea  also  accords  Avith  the  state  of  his 
revenue,  exhausted  by  his  insane  attemj^t  against  Greece.  In  fine,  these 
arguments,  negative  and  affirmative,  render  it  so  highly  probable  that 
Xerxes  is  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  that  to  demand  more  con- 
clusive evidence  would  be  to  mistake  the  very  nature  of  the  question." — 
See  Article  on  Ahasuerus. 
*  Esther  ix.  5,  6,  &c. 


tcALCorrur 


1.  Citaflel. 

2.  Shushan,  the  Palace. 

3.  Great  Platform. 


RICHES  FOUND  BY  ALEXANDER.  341 

expedition  for  the  subjugation  of  Greece,  and  it  was  here 
that  on  his  return  he  deposited  the  immense  treasures 
obtained  from  the  plunder  of  the  temple  at  Delphi,  and 
the  city  of  Athens. 

Still  later,  when  Alexander  broke  the  might  of  Persian 
power  at  the  battle  of  Arbela,  we  have  Susa  represented 
as  the  depository  of  the  wealth,  produced  by  the  exactions 
imposed  for  several  centuries  upon  the  impoverished 
districts  of  that  great  empire,  which  the  "  kings  of  kings" 
vainly  imagined  they  had  amassed  for  their  posterity. 
"We  read  that  the  governor  of  the  province  went  out  from 
the  city  to  meet  the  conqueror  Avith  presents  worthy  of 
a  king,  and  that  on  entering  Susa,  Alexander  found  in  the 
treasury  immense  sums  of  money,  with  fifty  thousand 
talents  of  silver"'  in  ore  and  ingots,  five  thousand  quintals 
of  Hermione  purple,t  and  among  other  articles  a  portion 
of  the  property  which  Xerxes  had  carried  ofi"  from  Greece. 
There  was,  therefore,  some  foundation  for  the  importance 
attributed  by  Cleomenes  to  the  possession  of  this  treasure- 
city! 

Susa  is  repeatedly  alluded  to  by  the  historians  of 
Alexander's  campaigns,  and  during  the  wars  of  his  suc- 
cessors, when  it  repeatedly  changed  hands.  At  length, 
in  the  year  250  B.C.,  the  Parthian  Arsaces,  raising  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Antiochus  Theos,  made  himself 
master  of  all  the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Macedonian 
empire  beyond  the  Tigris,  and  founded  the  Parthian 
empire,  which  endured  until  226  a.d.  Little  is  known 
to  us  of  this  warlike  people  during  the  five  centuries  of 
their  dominion,  but  Susa  continued  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  that  race,  and  of  the  early  Sassanian  kings  who  suc- 
ceeded them.     In  the  second  or  third  century  of  our  era, 

*  About  £7,500,000  sterling. 

t  A  quintal  is  about  a  hundredweight ;  the  immense  value  of  this  cele- 
brated purple  is  to  be  calculated  at  the  rate  of  £25  per  lb. 


342  IMPORTANCE  OF  SUSA  DECLINES. 

a  Christian  see  was  esta]  Wished  there;  but  Susa  gradually 
dedined  before  Ctesiphon,  Jundi  Shapur,  and  Shuster, 
and  was  at  length  taken  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  the  Kalif  Omar,  a.d.  640.  Coins  were 
struck  there  in  a.d.  709,  soon  after  which  date  the  place 
seems  to  have  been  deserted  in  favour  of  adjoining  towns 
which  were  rising  into  importance ;  and  the  history  of  its 
former  greatness  alone  remained  in  the  recitations  of 
Persian  poets,  the  exaggerated  traditions  of  the  people, 
and  the  vastness  of  its  mounds. 

Such  are  the  principal  antecedents  of  Shilsli — as  far 
at  least  as  it  is  possible  to  give  them  in  moderate  com- 
pass. It  is  now"  proposed  to  describe  the  state  of  the 
place  previous  to  the  excavations  undertaken  there  in 
1851-2. 

If  reference  be  made  to  a  map  of  this  region,  it  will  be 
seen  that,  soon  after  debouching  into  the  plains  from  the 
adjacent  mountains,  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Kerkhah  and 
the  river  of  Dizful,  approach  each  other  at  right  angles. 
When  -sAdthin  two  and  a  quarter  miles  of  forming  a  junc- 
tion, they  again  recede  from  each  other,  the  former  to 
pursue  its  course  to  the  Shat-el-Arab,  near  Korna,  and  the 
latter  to  join  the  Karfin  at  Bender-ghil.  At  the  point 
where  these  rivers  most  nearly  approximate,  stand  the 
mounds  of  Shush,  distant  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
from  the  Kerkhah,  and  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  river 
of  Dizful.  When  the  atmosphere  is  favourable,  they  are 
clearly  visible  from  Dizfiil  city,  and,  with  a  telescope,  I  have 
discerned  them  from  the  summit  of  the  Mungerrah  moun- 
tains, thirty  miles  distant.  At  the  eastern  base  of  the 
ruins  stands  the  tomb  of  Daniel,  on  the  vero-e  of  the 
Shaour,  a  deep  but  narrow  stream,  rising  from  the  plain 
a  few  miles  on  the  north,  and  flowing,  at  a  sluggisli  pace, 
towards  its  junction  with  the  river  of  Dizftil.  The  area 
occupied  by  the  ruins  covers  an  extent  of  ground  three 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RUINS  OF  SUSA.  343 

and  a  half  miles  in  circumference,  and,  if  the  numerous 
small  mounds  around  the  great  mass  be  included,  spreads 
over  the  whole  visible  plain  east  of  the  Shaour.  To  the 
west  of  that  stream  are  no  ruins  whatever.  , 

The  principal  existing  remains  consist  of  four  spacious 
artificial  platforms,  distinctly  separated  from  each  other. 
Of  these  the  western  moimd  is  the  smallest  in  super- 
ficial extent,  but  considerably  the  most  lofty  and  impor- 
tant.'^^  Accordino-  to  the  triaconometrical  measurement  of 
my  friend  Lieutenant  Glascott,  R.N.,  t  the  northern  and 
highest  point  is  1 1 9  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Shaour  at 
the  ford.  In  form  it  is  an  irregular,  obtuse-angled, 
triangle,  with  its  corners  rounded  off,  and  its  base  facing 
nearly  due  east.  It  is  apparently  constructed  of  earth, 
gravel,  and  sun-dried  brick,  sections  being  exposed  in 
numerous  ravines  produced  by  the  rains  of  mnter.  The 
sides  are  so  perpendicular  as  to  be  inaccessible  to  a  horse- 
man except  at  three  places.  J  The  measurement  round  the 
summit  is  about  2850  feet.  In  the  centre  is  a  deep  cir- 
cular depression,  probably  a  large  court,  surrounded  by 
elevated  piles  of  building,  the  fall  of  which  has  given  the 
present  configuration  to  the  surface.  Here  and  there  are 
exposed,  in  the  ravines,  traces  of  brick  walls,  which  shew 
that  the  present  elevation  of  the  mound  has  been  attained 
by  much  subsequent  superposition. 

About  half-way  down  the  slope  of  the  south-west  side§ 
lies  a  large  fragment  of  cherty-fractiuing  blue  limestone, 

*  Numbered  1  on  the  Plan. 

t  From  a  series  of  observations  of  the  same  gentleman,  the  south  point 
of  the  mouud  (B  on  the  plan)  is  in  latitude  32°  11'  25"  N.,  and  its  longitude 
is  roughly  estimated  at  about  48°  27'  0"  E.  I  may  take  this  opportunity 
to  remark  that  the  plan  is  chiefly  due  to  the  survey  made  with  a  prismatic 
compass  by  Mr  Churchill,  the  main  points  being  afterwards  correctly  fixed 
with  the  theodolite  by  Lieutenant  Glascott. 

J  Two  of  these  are  represented  on  the  plan  of  the  mounds,  the  other  is 
at  the  south-west  angle. 

§  At  the  end  of  trench  A  on  plan. 


344  THE  CITADEL  OF  SUSA. 

which  appears  to  have  been  part  of  an  obelisk.  The 
upper  si'de  bears  thirty-three  lines  of  complicated  charac- 
ters in  a  Scythic  dialect  of  the  cuneiform,  not  at  present 
deciphered,  although  Sir  Henry  Kawlinson  has  succeeded 
in  reading  upon  it  the  name  of  an  early  king  called  Susra.'^' 
Other  blocks  of  similar  stone,  and  another  of  sandstone, 
lie  upon  the  plain  below. 

From  the  remarkably  commanding  position  of  the 
great  mound,  ■which  is  called  by  the  people  of  the 
country,  "  the  kal'a "  or  castle,  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
recognising  in  it  the  citadel  of  Susa,  to  which  Arriant 
pointedly  alludes  in  the  following  passage  : — "  When  we 
had  sacrificed  according  to  national  custom,  and  held 
torch  races  and  athletic  games,  Alexander  appointed 
Abulites,  a  Persian,  satrap  of  Susiana,  gave  the  command 
of  the  garrison  (1000  disabled  Macedonian  soldiers)  in 
the  citadel  of  Susa,  to  Mazarus  one  of  his  own  staff,  and 
made  Ai-chelaus,  son  of  Theodorus,  governor  of  the  city 
(with  3000  men)  ;  after  which  he  set  out  to  go  into 
Persia."  The  administration  of  civil  affairs  was  entrusted 
to  the  Persian,  but  with  his  usual  admirable  policy,  the 
military  command  of  the  place  was  submitted  to  the 
Greek  generals.  The  importance  of  the  citadel,  command- 
ing the  rest  of  the  city,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fr.ct 
that  he  placed  in  it  the  well-tried  soldiers  who  had  followed 
him  from  his  own  native  kingdom  of  Macedonia. 

It  was  here,  too,  that  the  advancing  Moslem  host  en- 
countered the  obstinate  defence  of  Hormuzan,  satrap  of 
the  Persian  province,  who,  true  to  the  cause  of  his  fugi- 
tive sovereign  Yezdijird,  for  six  months  held  the  place 
aoainst  all  attacks.  But  courao;e  and  devotion  were  not 
proof  against  treachery.  One  of  the  garrison  revealed  to 
the  besiegers  a  secret  entrance  through  a  conduit  which 

•  Journal  of  the  EoyaJ  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xii.,  p.  482. 
t  "  Aniaui  Expeditio  Alexandri,"  iii.  16. 


THE  LOWER  PLATFORMS.  345 

supplied  the  castle  with  water ;  the  Arabs,  entenng  by 
night,  threw  open  the  outer  gates,  and  let  their  army  into 
the  coui't  yards.  Hormiizan,  from  the  battlements  of  a 
strong  tower  or  keep,  held  a  parley  with  the  Aral)  leader, 
and,  on  promise  of  Sufe-conduct,  finally  yielded  to  the 
Khalif,  whose  adviser  he  subsequently  became  in  the  prcj- 
cecution  of  the  war  with  Persia. 

Separated  from  the  citadel  on  the  west  by  a  channel  or 
ravine,  the  bottom  of  which  is  on  a  level  with  the  ex- 
ternal desert,  is  the  central  great  platform,  covering  up- 
wards of  sixty  acres."^'  The  highest  point  is  on  the  south 
side,  where  it  presents  generally  a  perpendicular  escarp- 
ment to  the  plain,  and  rises  to  an  elevation  of  about 
seventy  feet  ;  on  the  east  and  north  it  does  not  exceed 
forty  or  fifty  feet.  The  eastern  face  measures  three  thou- 
sand feet  in  length.  Enormous  ravines  penetrate  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  mound. 

The  north  mound,t  a  considerable  square  mass,  seems  to 
have  been  added  at  the  north-west,  and  a  smaller  mass 
at  the  south-east  corner  of  this  mound.  A  shght  hollow 
occurs  between  the  north  block  and  the  main  portion  of 
this  great  platform,  and  was  perhaps  an  ancient  road- 
way. 

The  eastern  platform,  called  uj^on  the  plan  the  ruins  of 
the  city,  I  is  very  extensive,  but  its  limits  are  less  easily 
defined,  because  its  edges  sink  gradually  into  the  plain. 

There  are  no  traces  of  walls  for  the  protection  of  the 
city,  and  although  Strabo  alludes  to  them,  it  is  probabk 
that  Susa  depended  much  more  upon  its  natural  defenc  .s, 
the  rivers  of  its  province,  than  upon  earthen  ramparts. 

Upon  the  extensive  series  of  low  mounds,  §  extending 
to  the  Dizftil  river,  are  two  tombs,  Imams  'Abbas  and 

•  Numbered  3  on  the  Plan.  t  Numbered  2  on  Plan. 

X  Numbei  cd  4  on  Plan, 

§  Not  shewn  npon  the  Plan,  from  went  of  space. 


o46  ABUNDANCE  OF  WILD  BEASTS. 

Ibraliim-el-Klialil,  which,  like  that  of  Dauiel,  are  built  of 
bricks  aud  small  capitals  of  white  marble  from  the  ruins. 

A  caual,  derived  from  the  Kerkhah,  about  two  miles 
from  the  point  where  it  enters  the  plain,  passing  round 
the  head  source  of  the  Sliaoui",  flows  to  the  north  and 
east  of  the  great  mass  of  mounds,  and  forms  a  small 
marsh  at  the  south-west  base  of  the  central  platform.  The 
river  Kerkhah  has  flowed  considerably  further  east  than 
at  present,  and  its  old  bed  may  be  traced  within  a  third 
of  a  mile  from  the  Shaour  ;  in  ancient  times  it  probably 
defended  the  southern  side  of  the  city.  The  old  bed  to 
which  I  allude  is  now  a  thick  forest  of  tamarisk,  poplar, 
and  acacia,  and  is  said  to  be  a  celebrated  cover  for  lions  ; 
in  fact,  I  several  times  observed  their  traces  here,  and 
the  people  of  the  country  shun  the  neighbourhood. 

Susa  abounds  in  wild  beasts  and  game, — ^Hons,  wolves, 
lynxes,  foxes,  jackals,  boars,  porcupines,  francolin,  and  a 
small  species  of  red-legged  partridge,  find  shelter  in  the 
density  of  the  surrounding  cover.  During  nine  months  in 
the  year  the  whole  country  is  burned  up  by  the  sun's  heat, 
with  an  intensity  which  gives  some  credence  to  Strabo's 
report,  that  lizards  and  serpents  could  not  crawl  across 
the  streets  at  mid-day  without  being  burnt.^'  At  the 
beginning  of  January,  however,  the  young  grass,  brought 
into  existence  by  the  heavy  rains,  makes  its  appearance, 
and  increases  with  a  truly  tropical  rapidity  and  luxuri- 
ance; nowhere  have  I  ever  seen  such  rich  vegetation  as 
that  which  clothes  the  verdant  plains  of  Shush,  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  plants  of  a  sweet-scented  and 
delicate  iris.t 

Far  in  the  south  is  seen  the  continuation  of  the  Ahwaz 


*  Strabo,  xv.  3. 

t  Morcea  Sisyrynchium,  Ker.  {Iris  Sisyrynchium,  L.)  By  some  persons  it 
is  supposed  that  the  abundance  of  this  beautiful  flower  gave  the  name  of 
"Shtishan" — the  Uly — to  this  locality. 


IMPOSING  ASPECT  OF  ANCIENT  SUSA.  347 

low  range,  intervening  between  Susa  and  tlie  plains  of 
Hawiza,  while,  on  the  north  and  north-east,  are  the 
snow-topped  chains  of  Lfiristan  and  the  Bakhtiyari,  skirted 
by  external  and  gradually  lowering  ridges  of  sandstone 
and  gravel  conglomerate. 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  a  more  imposing  site  than 
Susa,  as  it  stood  in  the  days  of  its  Kayanian  splendour, — its 
great  citadel  and  columnar  edifices  raising  their  stately 
heads  above  groves  of  date,  konar,  and  lemon  trees, — 
surrounded  by  rich  pastures  and  golden  seas  of  corn, — 
and  backed  by  the  distant  snow-clad  mountains.  Neither 
Babylon  nor  PersepoHs  could  compare  with  Susa  in  posi- 
tion— watered  by  her  noble  rivers,  producing  crops 
without  irrigation,  clothed  with  gxass  in  spring,  and 
within  a  moderate  jom^ney  of  a  delightful  summer  clime. 
Susa  \'ied  with  Babylon  in  the  riches  which  the  Eu- 
phrates conveyed  to  her  stores,  w^hile  Persepolis  must  have 
been  inferior,  both  in  point  of  commercial  position  and 
picturesque  appearance.  Under  the  lee  of  a  great  moun- 
tain range,  the  columns  of  Persepolis  rise  like  the  masts  of 
ships  taking  shelter  from  a  storm,  and  their  otherwise 
majestic  appearance  is  lost  in  the  magnitude  of  the  huge, 
bare,  rocky  mass  towering  above  them.  Susa,  on  the 
contrary,  stood  on  the  open  plain,  with  nothing  in  imme- 
diate proximity  to  detract  from  her  imposing  and  attrac- 
tive tableau.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen !  Where  are 
now  those  great  cities  of  ancient  Persia,  whence  issued 
forth  the  formidable  armaments  destined  to  make  even 
heroic  Greece  tremble  in  her  greatest  and  most  palmy 
days  1  How  faithfidly  does  their  fate  shadow  forth  that 
of  Persia  itself,  and  act  as  a  warning  to  the  proud  and 
arrogant  1  The  vast  hosts  of  Darius  and  Xerxes  served 
only  to  expose  the  riches  and  pride,  as  well  as  the  weak- 
ness and  cowardice  of  the  Oriental  character,  and  a  few 
years  brought  with  them  the  strong  arm  of  Alexander, 


348    THE  FATE  OF  SUSA  TYPICAL  OF  PERSIA'S  DOWNFALL. 

the  cliastener  and  avenger.  The  line  of  Persia's  ancient 
monarchs  was  broken,  and  a  son  of  insulted  Greece 
snatched  the  sceptre  from  the  fallen  dynasty.  From  that 
time  Persia  sank  lower  and  lower  in  the  scale  of  nations  ; 
and,  although  the  house  of  Sassan  in  some  degree  re- 
gained the  power  and  splendour  of  the  past,  yet  it  was 
only  temporary;  each  succeeding  century  has  seen  the 
vast  empire  of  the  king  of  kings  getting  deeper  into  the 
mire,  until,  at  the  present  day,  it  has  attained  that  pitch 
of  decay  and  degradation  from  which  it  is  difficult  to 
foresee  any  speedy  hope  of  regeneration  or  rescue. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

Excavations  commenced  by  Colonel  Williams — A  Burglar — Conviction 
and  Punishment — Gigantic  Bell-shaped  Bases  of  Columns  discovered 
— A  Year's  Interruption — Proposed  Resumption  in  1852 — Journey 
under  the  Protection  of  the  Beni  L^m — The  Segv\'end  Lurs — Hiring 
of  Native  "  Navvies" — Opposition  of  the  Priesthood — The  Cholera 
ascribed  to  the  late  researches — The  New  Viceroy,  Khdnler  Mfrza. 

No  time  was  lost,  after  Colonel  Williams'  arrival  at  tlie 
ruins,  in  commencing  excavations.  As  there  might  be 
some  difficulty  in  obtaining  Arab  workmen,  notwith- 
standing the  specious  promises  of  Sheikh  Mtisa'd,  the 
under-servants  of  the  Commission  were  at  once  em- 
ployed in  digging  a  trench  from  the  prostrate  and  in- 
scribed slab  on  the  south  side  of  the  citadel,  into  the  very 
heart  of  the  mound.'"'  By  sunset  they  had  opened  a 
trench,  forty  feet  long  and  nine  feet  deep,  much  to  the 
astonishment  of  the  few  Arabs  who  watched  the  proceed- 
ing, and  wondered  at  the  audacity  of  the  Firenghi  elchi. 
The  only  discovery  made  this  day  was  a  cylindrical 
sepulchral  vase,  of  baked  clay,  three  feet  long,  and  eleven 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  mouth,  rounded  at  the  opposite 
extremity;  the  interior  being  hned  with  bitumen,  and 
containing  the  bones  of  a  child,  and  a  few  beads.  It  was 
one  of  those  vases  which  I  attribute  to  the  Sassanians. 

On  the  second  day,  an  order  arrived  from  Suleyman 
Khan  with  permission  for  the  Arabs  to  aid  Colonel 
Williams, — but  only  a  small  party  could  be  induced  to 
accept  the  keran  a  day  offered  for  their  services,  the 

*  At  A  on  Plan. 


350  A  NOCTURNAL  THIEF. 

chiefs  keeping  out  of  the  way.  At  length,  on  the  third 
day,  Sheikh  ]\Iusa'd,  and  his  son  Ha'waychuni,  called  to 
pay  their  dutifnl  respects  to  the  elchi,  hut  more  particn- 
larly  to  ask  the  loan  of  ten  tomdns,  which  they  promised  to 
repay  in  as  many  days — a  rather  cool  request  on  a  first  \dsit! 
Not  succeeding  in  their  washes,  they  returned  to  their  tents 
evidently  dissatisfied  with  the  result  of  their  errand. 

Sheikh  Mus^'d  was  required  to  provide  a  guard  of 
his  people  to  watch  over  the  safety  of  our  property,  and 
nightly  at  sunset  a  dozen  of  his  ill-looking  rascals, 
with  bristly  beards  and  bitumen  clubs,  marched,  or  rather 
straggled  into  camp,  to  be  stationed  at  various  eligible 
points  for  the  prevention  of  surprise.  Five  nights  sub- 
sequent to  the  demand  for  tomans,  an  event  occiirred  which 
speedily  deprived  us  of  the  near  neighboiu'hood  of  Sheikh 
Miis^'d's  camp.  It  was  the  duty  of  one  of  the  bekjis  to 
keep  guard  upon  my  tent  and  that  of  Lieutenant  Glascott, 
situated  on  the  south  edge  of  the  great  mound.  I  was 
suddenly  awakened  in  the  dead  of  the  night  by  a  rustling 
noise  against  the  canvass;  but,  as  jackals  and  foxes  had 
taken  an  especial  liking  to  the  camp,  and  prowled  about, 
committing  all  sorts  of  strange  antics  and  depredations, 
such  as  biting  tent  ropes  and  stealing  corn  bags  from  off 
the  very  noses  of  the  horses,  I  supposed  that  some  of 
these  animals  were  taking  their  usual  diversions,  but  be- 
came at  last  convinced  that  a  human  beino;  was  effectino; 
an  entrance  into  my  tent.  I  imagined  that,  by  getting 
quietly  out  of  bed,  the  unwelcome  intruder  might  be 
caught;  but,  unfortunately,  the  noise  I  made  in  rising 
betrayed  my  intentions, — a  signal  was  given,  and  a  des- 
perate tug  at  the  canvass  announced  that  the  intruder 
lia'l  fled.  I  quickly  followed  in  the  direction  he  took 
towards  the  adjoining  tent,  where  the  bekji  sat  crouch- 
ing in  such  an  attitude  as  at  once  convicted  him  of  being 
an  accomplice.    He  was  seized,  and  placed  in  custody  until 


CONVICTION  AND  PUNISHMENT.  351 

clayljreak,  notwithstanding  his  protestations  of  innocence. 
On  examination  it  was  discovered  that  two  of  my 
tent-pegs  were  drawn,  and  the  outer  curtain  propj)ed 
up  by  a  short  chil),  two  pegs  of  the  inner  wall  were 
likewise  removed,  several  articles  of  apparel  strewed 
about,  and  one  or  two  actually  gone.  Next  dny, 
Colonel  Williams  sent  for  the  sheikh,  but  the  prisoner,  of 
course,  declared  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter, 
although  the  stick  propping  up  the  tent  was  proved 
to  be  his.  Miisa'd  drew  his  sword  and  threatened  to 
cut  the  fellow  down  unless  he  confessed,  but  he  still 
persisted  in  his  innocence.  Musa'd  then  proposed  to 
take  and  punish  him  at  his  own  camp ;  but  the  elchi,  not  to 
be  imposed  upon  by  an  Arab,  insisted  that  the  fellow  shoidd 
either  be  punished  on  the  spot,  or  sent  into  Dizfiil.  The 
latter  arrangement  did  not  exactly  suit  the  sheikh's  l)ook. 
for,  although  the  thief  would  have  been  punished  by  the 
amputation  of  a  hand  or  arm,  Musa'd  himself  would 
have  lost  that  which  he  valued  jnuch  more — namely,  a 
good  round  sum  of  kerans  by  way  of  fine.  Ha'waychum 
was  therefore  called  upon  by  his  worthy  father  to  perform 
the  part  of  Ferash  bashi  (executioner)  mth  the  thick  stick 
he  usually  carried.  The  wretched  culprit  was  tied  hand 
and  foot,  crying  for  mercy — but  that,  alas!  w^as  in  vain 
— down  went  the  blows  as  fast  as  hail  upon  any  part 
of  his  body  which  was  uppermost — no  matter  "whether, 
rolling  over  in  agony,  he  presented  his  back,  stomach, 
[eg,  foot,  elbow,  head,  or  nose, — Ha'waychum  shewed  no 
compassion  till  the  stick  was  reduced  to  splinters,  and 
himself  exhausted !  When  the  punishment  was  con- 
cluded, the  released  sufferer  in  an  instant  disappeared 
like  a  shot  over  the  edge  of  the  mound,  as  though  the 
punishment  had  diffused  extra  life  and  activity  into  his 
bones  and  muscles ! 

It  was  to  be  naturally  expected  that  this  example 


352  EVIDENCES  OF  MAGNIFICENT  STRUCTURES. 

would  liave  deterred  fiirtlier  theft ;  but  no  !  on  tlie  fol- 
lowing morning  our  best  mule  was  missing,  and  two 
others  were  caught  running  loose  with  their  ropes  cut. 
The  consequence  of  these  contretemps  was,  that  the  Arabs 
were  afraid  to  work  lest  any  of  them  should  be  suspected 
and  punished  like  the  bekji  on  the  previous  day.  Two 
mornings  later,  smoke  rising  from  the  adjoining  mound 
announced  that  Miisa  d  and  his  tribe  had  departed,  and, 
as  usual,  fired  the  refuse  of  their  camp. 

Up  to  this  time,  three  trenches,  dug  into  the  citadel 
mound  to  the  depth  of  nineteen  feet,  failed  to  discover 
anything  except  portions  of  a  brick  pavement, — fragments 
of  moulded  composition-bricks  stamped  with  cuneiform, 
and  covered  with  green  glaze, — and'"*  a  large  piece  of 
copper  like  the  lining  of  a  water-tank,  which,  being  left 
upon  the  mound,  was  soon  cut  up  and  carried  away 
piecemeal  by  the  Arabs. 

When  reduced  once  more  to  our  own  resources.  Colonel 
Williams  directed  his  attention  to  the  numerous  blocks 
and  pieces  of  limestone  lying  upon  the  surface  of  the 
mounds,  especially  upon  the  north  and  central  platforms, 
in  the  hope  that  some  discovery  might  be  made,  which 
would  justify  the  opening  of  trenches  at  some  particular 
spot.  It  was  evident  that  some  magnificent  structures 
once  existed  at  Susa,  for  the  surface  of  the  mounds  was 
strewed  with  fragments  of  fluted  columns,  which  had 
frequently  attracted  the  notice  of  travellers. 

Near  E  on  the  plan  was  a  large  block  of  blue  limestone, 
about  ten  feet  square  and  three  feet  thick,  projecting 
through  the  soil,  and  resting  on  a  gravel  foundation.  It 
was  doubtless  the  basement  stone  of  a  broken  fluted 
column  lying  near  at  hand.  Further  westward  was  a 
considerable  growth  of  mimosa  plant,  whose  prickles  ren- 
dered a  passage  through  them  a  matter  of  difliculty  to 

*  At  C,  on  General  Plan  of  Mounds. 


DISCOVER  f  OF  BELL-SHAPED  BASES  OF  COLUMNS,      353 

ourselves  and  damage  to  our  clotliing.  This  underwood 
extended  along  the  edges  of  a  rectangular  projection,  near 
the  middle  of  the  north  mound,  which  I  conceive  to  have 
1  )een  added  at  a  late  period  to  the  north-western  extremity 
of  the  great  central  platform. 

Near  the  north-west  angle  of  this  projection  among 
the  brushwood,  Colonel  Williams  observed  a  small  piece 
of  limestone  projecting  through  the  soil,  and  on  excavat- 
ing around  it,  discovered  the  gigantic  monolith  base  of  a 
column  in  situf'  Further  excavations  revealed  two 
similar  bases  t  at  equal  distances  apart,  twenty-seven  and 
a  half  feet  from  centre  to  centre,  and  four  feet  below  the 
surface.  They  were  buried  below  vegetable  soil,  a  pavement 
of  coarse  bricks,  a  layer  of  lime  cement,  and  gravel.  They 
rested  on  rough  limestone  slabs,  nine  feet  square  by  one 
foot  ten  inches  thick,  and  were  all  unfortunately  broken 
off  at  three  feet  four  inches  from  the  basement ;  but  sub- 
sequently there  was  discovered  near  them  a  fragment  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  base  with  the  torus  attached,  from 
which  Mr  Churchill  was  able  to  make  a  carefully-restored 
drawing  of  a  perfect  base.  There  coidd  be  no  hesitation  in 
concluding  that  Colonel  Williams  had  discovered  a  palace 
of  the  ancient  Persian  monarchs  at  Susa,  rivalling,  if  not 
surpassing,  that  at  Persepolis  in  grandeur.  The  bases 
were  bell-shaped,  and  richly  carved,  in  representation  of 
the  inverted  flower  of  a  plant  which  we  usually  term  the 
Egyptian  lotus.  The  following  are  measurements  care- 
fully taken  : — 

Diameter  at  the  swell  of  the  bell,  8  ft.  4  in. 

„  „  torus,  5  „  4  „ 

Height  of  phnth,        .        .         2  in. 

„   from  plinth  to  torus,  4  ft.  1  in. 

Total  height  of  bases,         4  ft.  3  in. 

The  general  form,  the  dimensions,  and  the  peculiar  style 
•  Number  7  of  Plan,  page  366.  t  Numbers  6  and  6. 


354  CONDUCT  OF  THE  AKABS. 

of  ornamentation  employed,  cannot  fail  to  remind  the 
observer  of  the  column  l>ases  in  the  Great  Hall,  attributed 
to  XerxcR,  at  Persepolis,  but  those  of  Susa  are  infinitely- 
more  graceful  in  design  and  detail,  exhibiting  round  the 
swell  of  the  bell  an  elegant  and  elaborate  wreath,  formed 
by  alternate  buds  and  perfect  flowers  of  the  lotus."^" 

At  the  western  foot  of  the  mound  were  the  breast  of 
a  fractured  bull,  enormous  fragments  of  fluted  columns, 
and  portion  of  a  fourth  base  similar  lO  the  other  three, 
amidst  a  quarry  of  debris. 

Trenches  were  then  carried  from  two  ol  the  pedestals, 
fifty-five  feet  into  the  mound;  and,  from  the  centre  of 
the  third  monolith,  holes  were  dug  twenty-seven  feet 
apart,  in  the  expectation  of  others  being  found.  Exca- 
vations were  likewise  made  at  E  (on  the  General  Plan), 
but  nothino;  fm-ther  could  then  be  discovered  of  the 
elegant  building  to  which  the  fragments  undoubtedly 
belonged. 

Durinor  a  month's  residence  at  Shush,  Colonel  Wil- 
liams'  researches  were  much  interrupted  by  the  miscon- 
duct of  the  Arabs,  as  well  as  by  the  hea\y  spring  rains, 
which  at  times  threatened  to  wash  our  encampment 
bodily  into  the  swollen  Shaour  below.  Suleyman  Khan 
was  much  annoyed  at  the  behaviour  of  our  neighbours, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  except  for  his  pre- 
sence at  Dizftil,  the  Arabs  would  have  declined  to 
lend  the  little  aid  they  did.     None  of  the  great  sheikhs 

•  See  woodcut,  page  360.  The  beautiful  design,  which  so  frequently  oc- 
curs upon  the  sculptures  at  Nineveh  and  on  the  column  bases  at  Susa  and 
Persepolis,  is  usually  supposed  to  represent  the  flower  of  the  Egyptian 
lotus  {Nijmphcea  Lotus),  but  it  may  equally  well  be  intended  for  the 
Egyptian  bean  {Nelumhium  speciosum),  the  Kvaixoi  of  Pythagoras,  now  no 
longer  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nile,  but  indigenous  to  the  East  Indian  rivers. 
In  some  cases,  however,  as  in  a  slab  recently  exhumed  from  Nineveh, 
the  flower  is  evidently  that  of  the  common  white  lily  of  our  gardens 
{Lilium  caikdidum). 


khCzistAn  in  1851.  355 

paid  the  respects  which  were  customary  towards  a  per- 
son in  the  official  position  of  Colonel  Williams.  Their 
utter  detestation  of  the  Firenghi  was  evinced  in  every 
possil)le  mode.  They  refused  to  sell  corn  or  sheep  to 
oiu-  party  ;  they  abused  our  servants  whenever  they 
met ;  and  they  kept  themselves  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  contaminatinor  and  dreaded  influence  of  the  hateful 

o 

strangers. 

At  leno-th  the  season  arrived  for  the  Commissioners 
to  resume  their  labours  and  conferences  at  the  "  de- 
bateable  land "  of  Mohammerah  ;  and  once  more  the 
green  plains  and  healthy  mounds  of  Susa  were  deserted 
for  the  less  aoreealile  deserts  on  the  borders  of  the  Hafar. 
We  all  regretted  the  sad  alternative,  but  duty  required 
our  presence  upon  the  frontier. 

Before  any  attempt  was  made  to  resume  excavations 
at  Susa,  another  year  elapsed,  during  which  interval 
great  changes  had  taken  place  in  Klmzistan.  The 
threatened  discharge  of  Suleyman  Khan  from  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  province  actually  took  place :  bribery 
and  court  intrigue  had  done  their  work.  The  Christian 
had  played  the  same  game,  and  ventured  a  high  stake  ;  a 
purse  of  tomans  to  the  Shah,  and  20,000  more  to  the 
Amir,  were  spent  in  vain, — Khanler  Mirza,  the  favourite 
uncle  of  the  Shah,  took  possession  of  the  province.  He 
had  previously  governed  the  Gulpaigan  district,  near 
Isfahan,  where  his  stern  and  unflinching  distribution  of 
justice  gained  him  the  greatest  respect.  To  this  were 
now  added  Luristan,Khuzistan,  and  the  Bakhtiyari  moun- 
tains, so  that  Khanler  Mlrza  ruled  over  the  largest, 
richest,  and  most  important  region  throughout  Persia. 
As  a  natural  consequence  of  the  change  of  governors,  the 
whole  of  the  above  districts  were  in  an  excited  state,  and 
with  difficulty  prevented  from  breaking  out  into  open 
rebellion.     A  few  judicious  examples  were  made  by  the 


356  PROPOSED  RESUMPTION  OF  EXCAVATIONS. 

Prince,  whose  iron  rule  soon  made  itself  felt,  alike  among 
Liirs  and  Arabs.  At  the  end  of  1851,  the  only  disaffec- 
tion still  existing  thi-oughout  the  Prince's  dominion  was 
at  its  north-western  extremity,  among  a  division  of  the 
Feyli  Ltirs. 

In  the  interim,  the  delimitation  of  the  Turko-Persian 
frontier  proceeded  but  slowly,  and  December  1851 
saw  the  four  Commissions  assembled  at  Zoh^b,  in  the 
Persian  province  of  Kermanshah,  without  any  material 
results  of  their  labours.  Letters  were  there  received 
from  Colonel  Eawlinson,  at  Baghdad,  stating  that,  during 
the  previous  session,  a  sum  of  £500  had  been  voted  by 
Parliament,  and  placed  at  his  disposal,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  further  researches  at  Susa.  Lord  Pahnerston's  con- 
sent had  Hkewise  been  obtained,  authorising  my  being  em- 
ployed in  excavations,  when  not  otherwise  more  profitably 
engaged.  As  the  movement  of  the  Commissioners  was 
directed  from  Zohab  towards  the  south,  keeping  along  the 
plains,  my  services  as  geologist  could,  for  the  present, 
be  dispensed  with  by  Colonel  Williams,  who  therefore 
directed  me  to  proceed  to  Baghdad,  and  receive  Colonel 
Eawhnson's  instructions  concerning  the  prosecution  of 
excavations  at  Susa. 

La  the  middle  of  January  I  once  more  rejoined  the 
Commission  at  Mendeli,  whence,  provided  with  letters  to 
the  Prince,  and  armed  Avith  the  Shah's  firman,  I  prepared 
for  an  adventurous  journey  of  two  hundred  miles  across 
the  desert  to  Dizfiil.  I  travelled  under  circumstances  of 
more  than  ordinary  difficulty,  none  of  the  authorities 
being  willing  to  ensure  my  safety.  The  region,  through 
which  portion  of  my  route  lay,  belongs  to  the  Beni  Lam 
Arabs,  who  are  nominally  subject  to  the  Pasha  of  Bagh- 
dad, although  that  dignitary  has  really  little  influence 
over  them.  During  the  winter  and  spring  months,  the 
numerous  Persian  tribes  of  the  Fe}'li  Liirs  descen.l  from 


JOURNEY  TO  SUSA — INSECURITY  OF  THE  ROUTE.      357 

tlieir  mountain  fastnesses,  and  pasture  tlieir  flocks  upon 
the  same  plains.  As  these  occupants  of  the  country  be- 
long to  distinct  races,  and  speak  diflferent  languages, 
distrust  and  warfare  are  of  constant  occurrence  between 
them.  Two  feelings,  however,  they  have  in  common  : — 
intense  hatred  to  tlieir  respective  and  nominal  sovereigns, 
and  bigoted  intolerance  towards  all  but  their  own  sect 
of  Sheah  Mohammedans.  Methktir,  the  Beni  Lam  Sheikh, 
being  considerably  in  arrear  with  his  annual  tribute  to 
the  Baghdad  treasury,  was  endeavouring  to  elude  the 
Pasha's  messengers.  'Mi  Khan,  the  chief  of  the  Segw^end 
Liirs,  was,  as  I  have  just  said,  in  open  rebellion  against 
the  new  governor  of  Khuzistan  ;  he  was  a  relative  of  that 
Kelb  'All  Khan,  who  murdered  our  countrymen,  Grant 
and  Fotheringham,  and  was  equally  notorious  for  his 
cruelty  and  want  of  faith.  Carrying  w^ith  me  letters  to 
the  Prince,  and  a  large  sum  of  ready  money  for  the 
commencement  of  the  excavations,  but  being  without 
protection  from  any  party,  it  must  be  admitted  that  my 
prospects  were  not  very  encouraging.^'"  However,  in  ad- 
dition to  my  own  little  staff  of  domestics,  the  Persian 
Commissioner,  Mirza  Jafer  Khan,  with  his  usual  prompti- 
tude, placed  at  my  disposal  two  of  his  mehmendars,  and 
I  was  joined  by  two  Bakhtiyarl  servants  of  Seyid 
Mustapha — an  influential  religious  chief  of  Dizful,  enjoy- 
ing British  protection, — one  of  the  most  daring  and 
unscrupulous  of  intrig-uers.  Thus  we  mustered  a  tolerably 
strong  party. 

Mii'za  Jafer  Khdn  had  supplied  me  with  letters  to  the 

*  I  had  before  me  Mr  Layard's  warning  of  the  insecurity  of  the  route 
(Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  89),  but  there  was 
no  alternative,  unless  I  chose  to  take  the  long  journey  by  Busrah  and  up  the 
Kdrtin.  Any  laudation  from  me  is,  I  am  aware,  superfluous,  but  I  cannot 
omit  to  express  my  sense  of  the  value  of  that  gentleman's  geographical 
communication  upon  the  region  in  question.  It  is  full  of  the  most  accurate 
and  detailed  information. 


358      OBTAIN  PROTECTION  OF  THE  BENl  LAM. 

chief  of  all  the  Fc}  li  Ltiis,  but,  at  the  conclusion  of  my 
third  (lay's  journey,  the  people  of  Baghcha-Seray,  a  small 
village  on  the  Persian  side  of  the  frontier,  refused  either 
to  admit  me  within  their  walls,  or  to  furnish  me  mth  a 
guide  to  their  chief  or  elsewhere.  Und^r  these  circum- 
stances, I  deemed  it  advisable  to  seek  the  protection  of 
the  Beni  Ld,m  Sheikh,  and,  for  this  purpose,  diverged 
towards  the  bank  of  the  Tigris.  Falling  in  with  a  few 
tents  of  his  tribe,  I  obtained  a  guide,  who  undertook  to 
conduct  me  to  his  camp,  distant  two  days'  journey,  amid 
the  sand-hills  of  the  Tib.  It  was  fortunate  that  I  took 
this  course.  Methkur  was  flattered  by  my  placing  myself 
under  his  protection  and  guidance  ;  while  the  present  of 
a  bag  of  coffee,  and  a  rich  piece  of  green  silk  for  a  dress, 
made  him  my  friend  and  "  brother,"  and  subsequently 
secured  me  from  the  depredations  of  his  whole  tribe  during 
my  third  residence  on  the  mounds  at  Shush.  The  Beni 
Lam  are  notorious  thieves,  and  their  name  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  following  tale  : — 

"  An  ancient  king,  passing  through  the  tribe,  ordered 
each  man  to  bring  a  kid's-skin  full  of  milk  to  a  cer- 
tain place  for  the  supply  of  his  troops.  The  skins 
were  duly  brought,  well  filled  out ;  but,  on  the  milk  being 
measured,  there  proved  to  be  only  half  the  quantity  or- 
dered. It  appeared  that  each  milkman  had  unwittingly 
stumbled  upon  the  same  expedient  to  cheat  the  troops 
and  save  his  own  dairy,  their  skins  were  half-filled  with 
wind.  Hence  the  tribe  was  called  'Lam,'  the  Persian 
for  knave  or  black-leg  ! "  Such,  at  least,  is  the  Persian 
explanation. 

Methkur's  protection  was  valid  among  the  insurgent 
Segwendis,  whose  camp  lay  on  my  next  day's  journey. 
'All  Khan  at  first  seemed  disposed  to  be  inhospitable,  and, 
perhaps,  thought  what  a  diversion  it  would  be  to  his  re- 
spected followers  if  he  gave  the  order  for  an  onslaught 


*ALf  KHAN  and  the  SEGWENDfS.  359 

on  the  party.  His  fears,  or  better  feelings,  liowever,  pre- 
vailed, and  he  feasted  me  that  night  on  good  wheaten 
bread  and  national  lamb.  If  any  truth  is  to  be  placed 
in  physiognomy,  that  of  'Ah  Khan  fully  justified  the 
character  he  received  ;  his  tribe,  too,  was  the  most  extra- 
ordinary assemblage  of  animals  bearing  the  human  form 
that  I  ever  set  eyes  upon.  They  had  high  shoulders, 
long  legs,  pucker-faces,  and  (if  the  Lamarckian  theory  of 
transmutation  of  species  be  true)  perhaps  also  long 
tails,  although  I  wi\l  not  vouch  for  this  fact,  not  having 
had  an  opportunity  of  making  a  minute  zoological  ex- 
amination. They  could  not,  liowever,  have  been  so  far 
advanced  in  the  scale  of  progression  as  those  men  with 
tails,  whom  it  is  said  the  French  naturalist,  M.  Castel- 
man,  heard  of  in  Abyssinia,  because  the  latter  possessed 
benches  mth  holes  in  them,  through  which  they  passed 
their  tails  ;  the  Segwendis  were  not  so  civilized  as  even 
to  construct  a  bench  !  Had  we  encountered  this  strange 
race  in  the  deserts  without  Methktir's  protection,  our  safety 
would  not  have  been  valued  at  a  straw.  As  it  was,  how- 
ever, 'All  Khan  provided  a  guide,  in  addition  to  the  Arab 
sent  by  the  sheikh,  and  by  his  assistance  we  crossed  the 
river  Kerkhah  at  a  dangerous  ford,  and  ultimately  arrived 
in  safety  at  Dizful. 

His  Highness  the  Prince,  since  his  accession  of  terri- 
tory, had  done  away  with  the  steps  and  stairs  by  which 
the  bridge  was  previously  crossed.  He  had  only  just  de- 
parted for  the  Nahr  Hashem,  where  a  bund  w^as  in  course 
of  erection,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  river  Kerk- 
hah to  the  ancient  channel  past  the  town  of  Hawiza, 
which  was  abandoned  by  the  stream  in  1832.  A  mes- 
senger was  despatched  to  him  with  my  letters,  and  in  a 
few  days  I  received  a  reply,  stating  that  "  all  my  wishes 
should  be  gratified,"  and  that  he  would  return  to  Dizful 
in  a  few  days. 


360  HIRING  OF  WORKMEN. 

In  the  interim  I  made  no  secret  of  my  intentions,  but 
i^ave  notice  to  all  my  visitors  that  the  excavations  were 
about  to  be  resumed.  At  the  same  time  I  took  care  to 
exhibit  the  Shrih's  fimi^n,  so  that  the  news  spread  like 
wildfire  through  the  bazaars  that  the  Firenghis  were 
come  again  to  dig  for  gold  at  Shtish  !  The  regular  pay 
and  circulation  of  money  during  Colonel  AYilliams'  ex- 
cavations had  produced  an  improved  feeling  among  the 
lower  classes  towards  Europeans.  The  Arabs,  it  is  true, 
did  not  shew  much  disposition  to  aid  me,  but  the  agri- 
cultural Liirs  from  the  adjoining  villages  flocked  in  from 
all  directions  anxious  for  employment.  The  previous 
conduct  of  the  Arabs  on  two  occasions,  and  their  present 
shyness,  were  not  such  inducements  that  I  should  rely 
upon  them  alone ;  whereas  the  Liirs  were  strong,  hardy 
mountaineers,  accustomed  and  able  to  handle  the  spade. 
I  engaged  seventy  at  the  rate  of  half  a  keran  per  day, 
equivalent  to  fivepence  of  our  money,  and  ascertained  that, 
\vith  a  day's  notice,  two  or  three  hundred  more  could  be 
secured  on  the  same  reasonable  terms.  Two-thirds  of 
the  Lurs  agreed  to  take  their  own  implements.  Addi- 
tional spades,  axes,  pulleys,  ropes,  and  other  necessaries 
were  daily  accumulated,  and  nothing  was  now  wanting  but 
an  interview  with  the  Prince,  and  his  full  permission  to 
enable  me  to  break  ground  without  delay. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  priests  and  holy  men 
of  Dizful  observed  my  open  proceedings  with  favour. 
They  used  every  endeavour  to  thwart  my  plans,  but  this 
was  done  secretly,  because  they  knew  Kh^nler  Mirza 
to  be  no  friend  to  their  order.  Since  the  last  visit  of 
the  British  Commission,  cholera  had  committed  ex- 
tensive ravages  throughout  the  province, — this  was,  of 
course,  attributed  by  them  to  Colonel  Williams'  excava- 
tions "  at  Danyel ! "  When  it  became  known  to  the 
mujtehid  that  the  Lurs  were  offering  themselves,  several 


PRIESTLY  OPPOSITION.  361 

of  the  poor  fellows  were  called  into  his  presence,  and  told 
that,  if  they  escaped  being  killed  by  the  falling  of  the 
trenches,  they  would  assuredly  die  of  cholera  before  the 
expiration  of  the  year !  The  act  of  digging  into  those 
mounds  was  a  sacrilege,  and  there  was  no  hope  for  of- 
fenders who  ventured  to  transgress  after  the  priestly  warn- 
ing! Love  of  gain,  however,  proved  infinitely  more  po- 
tent than  the  threats  of  the  priesthood  or  the  fear  of 
death.  When  kerans  became  plentiful  in  the  hands  of  the 
workmen,  and  were  spent  in  the  bazaars,  even  the  green- 
turbaned  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  seized  with  the 
general  fever  after  wealth,  forsook  their  usual  avocations, 
and  hastened  to  the  trenches  ! 

As  soon  as  the  Prince  arrived  at  his  camp  on  the  cliff 
opposite  to  the  town  of  Dizful,  I  received  an  invitation  to 
his  tent.  Having  had  the  advantage  of  his  previous  ac- 
quaintance, I  was  received  by  him  in  the  most  affable  and 
courteous  manner.  The  letters,  of  which  I  was  the  bearer, 
had  evidently  given  him  much  pleasure.  His  Highness, 
Khdnler  MIrza,  might  then  be  about  thirty-five  years  of 
age,  and  was  a  remarkably  handsome  man,  although 
somewhat  pale,  the  result,  it  was  whispered,  of  dissipa- 
tion. His  intelligent  features,  high  forehead,  full  black 
eyes,  and  aquiline  nose,  would  have  anywhere  rendered 
him  an  object  of  attraction.  He  did  not  generally  bear 
a  good  name,  but,  from  circumstances  which  afterwards 
presented  themselves  to  my  notice,  I  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  he  was  an  admirable  governor  of  a  Persian 
province,  stern  and  unrelenting  to  the  criminal,  but 
usually  mild  and  lenient  towards  others.  If  he  called  on 
his  subjects  for  a  large  increase  of  their  taxes,  (the  chief 
charge  against  him),  it  was,  I  would  fain  believe,  with  the 
intention  of  applying  the  proceeds  to  the  public  good.  He 
was  building  and  repairing  bridges,  erecting  dams  for  the 
better  distribution  of  water,  and  engaged  in  other  sub- 


362  KHANLER  MfRZA,  THE  NEW  VICEROY. 

stantial  works,  which,  if  fully  carried  out,  would  he  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  the  prosperity  of  Khfizistan.  He 
was  reported  to  be  cruel  in  his  punishments,  hut  that  is 
as  much  the  fault  of  the  people  as  of  their  rulers  :  they 
never  have  a  due  respect  for  the  authority  of  a  governor 
unless  a  few  executions  take  place  on  his  assumption  of 
office.  Such  examples  are  therefore  absolutely  necessary 
to  awe  a  province  into  good  behaviour  for  at  least  a 
reasonable  time. 

He  soon  introduced  the  name  of  Shush,  and  shewed  that 
he  took  great  interest  in  the  excavations  at  the  palace  of 
"  D4r4b  "  (as  he  correctly  called  the  column  bases  already 
exposed),  which  he  had  carefully  examined  one  day  while 
hunting  in  the  neighbourhood.  On  my  stating  that  I 
had  engaged  some  Lurs,  subject  to  his  approval,  he  inter- 
rupted me,  "  But,"  said  he,  "  you  are  going  to  pay  them 
too  much !  I  hear  you  have  engaged  them  at  a  ker^n 
a-head,  because,  when  I  wante,d  labourers  for  the  bund 
at  Nahr  Hashem,  they  refused  to  come  for  the  usual 
rate  of  pay,  alleging  that  you  were  offering  tmce  as 
much."  I  told  him,  with  a  knowing  look,  that  he  knew 
the  people  of  the  country  better  than  myself,  but  that 
half-a-keran  was  the  sum  I  had  agreed  to  give  them.  He 
fully  comprehended  me,  and  returned  my  look  with  com- 
pound interest,  exclaiming,  with  a  smile,  "A  keran,  indeed! 
The  dogs'  fathers  never  saw  so  much  money  ! " 

His  recent  visit  to  the  bund  at  Nahr  Hashem  had  evi- 
dently much  annoyed  him.  His  engineers,  if  such  a  term 
could  be  applied  to  the  parties  employed,  had  made  a 
complete  failure  of  their  work,  and  consequently  a  large 
portion  of  it  was  carried  away  by  a  sudden  rise  of  the  river. 
"  But,"  said  the  Prince,  "  before  I  leave  Dizful  for  the  moun- 
tains, inshallah !  I  shall  have  it  finished ! "  As  I  rose  to 
depart  he  gave  me  strict  injunctions  that,  if  any  one  mis- 
behaved in  the  slightest  degree,  or  failed  to  shew  me  the 


KHANLEE  MfRZA,  THE  NEW  VICEROY.  363 

same  deference  he  should  himself  expect  if  there,  I  should 
inform  him  without  delay  ;  if  I  did  not,  the  fault  would 
be  my  own.  The  same  instructions  were  given  to  Feth 
Ullah  Kh4n,  one  of  his  trusty  men,  whom  he  ordered  to 
watch  over  my  safety,  and  obey  my  orders. 

Heavy  rain  prevented  my  leaving  Dizful  for  a  couple 
of  days,  after  which  my  tents  were  pitched  upon  the  north- 
west platform,  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  column 
bases.  My  seventy  workmen  duly  made  their  appear- 
ance, spade  on  shoulder,  ready  to  commence  operations  as 
soon  as  the  order  should  be  issued.  Having  no  tents,  the 
sanctity  of  Daniel's  tomb  was  soon  violated,  and  its  old 
roof  rung  with  the  chorus  of  wild  Lurish  songs,  which 
seventy  lusty  throats  screeched  forth  untiringly. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

The  Great  Palace  of  Darius  at  Susa — Columns  with  Double-bull 
Capitals — Trilingual  Inscriptions  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon — "  Court 
of  the  Garden"  of  Esther — Columnar  and  Curtain  Architecture — 
Origin  of  the  Susian  and  Persepolitan  Style — ^Worship  of  Tanaitis  or 
Venus. 

On  looking  around  the  vast  area  of  mounds,  and  con- 
sidering the  small  sum  at  my  disposal  for  the  investigation 
of  their  contents,  I  was  almost  tempted  to  regard  my 
enterprize  as  a  hopeless  one.  There  was  an  exceedingly 
bare  prospect  of  making  any  important  discovery  near 
the  site  of  the  columns  akeady  exhumed,  because  of  the 
slight  depth  of  the  earth.  However,  with  them  before 
me,  and  the  certainty  that  some  other  portion  of  the 
building  must  exist  near  at  hand,  I  resolved  to  proceed 
and  endeavour  to  ascertain  the  plan  of  the  edifice  to 
which  they  belonged :  possibly  something  of  interest  might 
turn  up  among  the  fragments.  There  was  a  probability, 
too,  that  a  stylobate  existed,  as  in  the  palaces  at  Perse- 
polis,  adorned  with  sculptures  and  inscriptions.  I  there- 
fore decided  on  driving  several  trenches  into  the  mound 
from  the  edges,  commencing,  in  the  first  place,  near  the 
columns.  My  efibrts  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood* 
were  wholly  unsuccessful,  but,  on  the  first  day,  a  trench 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  distant,  close  on  the 
north  side  of  the  platform,  struck  upon  a  large  basement 

•  At  F  on  the  General  Plan  of  the  ruins,  page  343. 


THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA.      365 

slab  of  blue  limestone  (at  No.  9  on  the  Plan,  see  next  page). 
Upon  its  surface  could  be  distinctly  traced  a  circle,  eight 
feet  four  inches  in  diameter,  a  proof  that  it  formerly  sup- 
ported a  column  of  precisely  similar  dimensions  to  those 
already  laid  bare  (Nos.  5,  6,  7). 

From  the  centre  of  this  slab,  twenty-seven  feet  three 
inches  were  measured  off  on  either  side  along  the  scarp 
of  the  mound,  and  a  similar  slab  discovered  in  each  posi- 
tion. I  was  not,  however,  equally  fortunate  with  holes 
dug  at  the  same  distances  from  the  centres  of  these  slabs 
towards  the  centre  of  the  mound.  Colonel  Williams  had 
in  like  manner  failed  to  find  any  indications  of  a  second 
row  of  columns.  I  tried  a  series  of  holes  at  equal  dis- 
tances beyond  those  last  made,  but  with  no  better  success. 
Not  satisfied  with  this,  I  opened  a  long  trench  from  my 
first-discovered  baRement  slal),  passed  the  two  holes,  and, 
at  the  distance  of  sixty-eight  feet  four  inches  from  its 
centre,  reached  a  gigantic  monolith  pedestal.  It  mea- 
sured eight  feet  square,  and  two  feet  five  inches  high,  at 
which  point  there  was  a  flat  ledge,  nine  inches  deep  ; 
beyond  this  again  the  monolith  rose  a  foot  higher,  and 
was  then  broken  off.  Farther  on,  in  the  same  line,  with 
a  like  inter-columniation  of  twenty-seven  feet  three  inches, 
occurred  four  similar  square  pedestals,  more  dilapidated 
than  the  first,  and  a  vacant  space  for  another,  thus 
marking,  in  all,  the  positions  of  six  columns. 

A  trench  at  right  angles  to  the  other,  was  now  dug 
from  the  square  base  first  discovered,  and  disclosed,  at 
similar  distances  apart,  four  additional  square  pedestals 
on  the  east,  and  one  on  the  west  (in  row  1 ,  3,  of  the 
Plan). 

I  was  now  satisfied  that  the  structure  was  one  of 
similar  description  to  the  so-called  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes 
at  Persepolis.  Further  researches  not  only  confirmed  this 
impression,  but  proved  likewise  that,  although  the  two 


366 


THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA. 


colonnades  differed  in  details,  they  were  erected  on  the 
same  plan,  and  with  nearly  the  same  measurements.  It 
is  therefore  natural  to  conclude  that  they  were  the  designs 
of  the  same  architect. 

The  accompanying  ground  plan  of  the  palace  at  Susa 
; '  rves  to  explain  its  arrangement.     It  may,  however,  be 


Column  bases  or  basement 
slabs  actually  discovered. 

Positions  of  columns  not 
sought  for. 


r,_    Column  b:iaes  with  triling^ial 
"*  inscriptions. 

□   Position  of  a  column,  no  por- 
tion of  which  was  found. 


THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA.  367 

necessary  briefly  to  remark,  for  the  information  of  those 
with  whom  the  PersepoHtan  structure  ■''"  is  not  familiar, 
that  the  Great  Hall  at  Susa  consisted  of  several  magni- 
ficent groups  of  columns,  together  having  a  frontage 
of  three  hundred  and  forty-three  feet  nine  inches,  and 
a  depth  of  two  hundred  and  forty-four  feet.  These 
groups  were  arranged  into  a  central  phalanx  of  thirty-six 
columns  (six  rows  of  six  each),  flanked  on  the  west, 
north,  and  east,  by  an  equal  number,  disposed  in  double 
rows  of  six  each,  and  distant  from  them  sixty-four  feet 
two  inches. 

Of  the  inner  phalanx  the  positions  of  twenty-one 
columns  were  determined,  and  many  others  doubtless 
might  be  discovered  by  excavation  ;  but,  as  it  was 
necessary  to  make  the  utmost  use  of  my  funds,  I  was 
obliged  to  rest  satisfied  with  ascertaining  the  actual 
plan  of  the  edifice. 

Of  the  external  groups,  there  remained  on  the  west, 
three  t  of  the  inner  row — the  original  discovery  of  Colonel 
Williams, — and  a  large  fragment  of  another  among  the 
debris  upon  the  slope  of  the  mound.  It  doubtless  be- 
longed to  the  outer  row  of  the  same  group. 

Three  large  basement  slabs  of  the  inner  row  alone 
remained  of  the  northern  series; — but,  of  the  eastern 
group,  the  positions  of  two  in  each  row  were  ascertained ; 
the  rest  are  either  still  buried,  or  had  long  since  fallen 
down  the  slope  of  the  mound. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  the  outer  rows  being  destroyed 
in  the  western  and  northern  groups,  that  neither  Colonel 
Williams  nor  myself  at  first  succeeded  in  finding  the  rest 
of  the  columns.     We  might  have  dug  holes  all  over  the 

*  For  details  regarding  Persepolis  and  its  palaces,  I  may  refer  the  reader 
to  the  admirable  works  of  Chardin,  Le  Brun,  Niebuhr,  Texier,  Ker  Porter, 
Flaudin  and  Coste,  and  Fergusson. 

t  Numbered  5,  6,  7,  on  the  Plan, 


:3G8  THE  GllEAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA. 

inouuds  at  twenty-seven  feet  three  inches  apart,  com- 
menciiio-  from  our  separate  starting  points,  and  neither  of 
us  would  by  this  means  have  discovered  another  column  ! 
As  another  instance  of  the  luck  attending  excavations,  I 
may  mention  that  Colonel  Williams  actually  dug  two 
trenches*  between  the  rows  of  columns  ;  whereas  a  few 
feet  deviation  from  the  straight  line  must  have  inevitably 
revealed  one  of  them  ! 

In  the  Great  Hall  at  Persepolis  there  are  clearly  two 
orders  of  columns  ;  the  same  coincidence  obtained  at 
Susa,  but  as  none  of  the  shafts  remain  erect  at  the  latter 
locaHty,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  unhesitatingly  concern- 
ing the  entire  details.  We  know  for  a  certainty,  however, 
that  the  inner  phalanx  possessed  square  bases,  while  those 
of  the  outer  groups  were  bell-shaped.  All  the  shafts  were 
undoubtedly  fluted  like  those  at  Persepolis,  but  beyond 
this  point  there  must  remain  much  conjecture.  Strewed 
in  inextricable  confusion  amono;  the  monoliths  were  liuo;e 
portions  of  the  fallen  columns  ;  these  were  so  abundant 
that  I  w^as  able  to  take  correct  measurements,  and,  with 
Mr  Churchill's  assistance,  to  restore  the  various  details  of 
one  variety  of  compound  capital,  identical  (except  in  a 
few  unimportant  particulars)  with  those  in  the  external 
groups  at  Persepolis.  This  capital  evidently  consisted  of 
four  distinct  parts,  as  shewn  in  the  accompan}dng  wood- 
cut, which  is  reduced  from  JNIr  Churchill's  drawings  of  the 
originals. t  They  are  probably  intended  to  represent  the 
pendent  leaves  of  the  date-palm,  the  opening  bud  of 
the  lotus  flower,  a  series  of  double  volutes,  and  certainly 
at  the  summit,  two  demi-buUs,  between  whose  necks 
passed  the  beams  for  the  support  of  the  roof. 

*  Shewn  at  E  on  the  General  Plan. 

t  These  drawings  were  extremely  careful  restorations  of  the  sculptures, 
nothing  being  admitted  for  which  there  is  not  suflQcient  proof.  They  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 


THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA. 


361) 


Whether  any  other 
variety  of  capital  existed 
at  Susa  it  is  difficult  to 
decide,  but  from  the  fre- 
quent repetition  of  the 
same  subject  among  the 
debris  of  the  palace,  I 
am  inclined  to  think  that 
the  same  surmounted 
the  top  of  every  column. 
Mr  Fergusson,"^'  in  his 
admirable  attempt  to  re- 
store the  Persepolitan 
structures,  rejects  the 
drawings  of  Texier,  Flan- 
din  and  Coste,  as  re- 
gards the  presence  of  the 
double -bull  capital  in 
the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing, and  remarks  : — "  In 
this,  the  beams  runnino; 
equally  in  four  direc- 
tions,   a   capital    facing 

*  "  Nineveh  and  Persepolis 
Restored,"  p.  162. 

t  The  total  height  of  this 
compound  capital  was  28  feet. 
The  horns  and  ears  of  the  two 
bulls  were  not  found  ;  these  were 
let  in  with  lead,  but  had  disap- 
peared. The  beams  represented 
in  the  woodcut  are,  of  course, 
imaginary.  There  was  no  means 
of  ascertaining  the  height  of 
the  fluted  column,  because  no 
portion  remained  in  situ.  The 
total  height  of  the  tallest  column 
at  Persepolis  is,  from  the  floor 
to  the  architrave,  67  feet  4 
inches. 


Compo\ind  capital  and  base  of  column  at  S^isa. 


370  THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS  AT  SUSA. 

only  in  two  is  a  singularly  awkward  expedient,  as  clnmsy 
for  an  interior  as  it  is  appropriate  for  an  external  poreli." 
But,  nothwitlistanding  this  opinion,  the  abundant  frag- 
ments of  broken  bulls,  which  occur  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
great  plialanx  at  Susa,  are,  I  think,  satisfactory  proof  that 
all  the  columns  were  surmounted  by  them,  and  I  therefore 
fpiite  concur  with  the  three  authors  just  mentioned,  that 
the  same  was  the  case  in  the  corresponding  structure  at 
Persepolis.  It  is  certain,  at  any  rate,  that  the  northern 
row  of  the  central  Susian  group  was  supplied  with 
double  bulls,  because  one  pedestal  (No.  1)*  has  a  piece 
cleanly  cut  out  of  its  eastern  side  by  the  perpendicular 
fall  of  the  bull-caj)ital,  which  could  not  have  fallen 
into  that  position  except  from  the  column  immediately 
above,  or  from  the  one  adjoining  it.  The  head  of 
another  bull  was  observed  to  rest  against  a  monolith, 
while  a  body  had  fallen  on  the  opposite  side. 

The  most  interesting  discovery,  however,  connected 
\vith  this  columnar  edifice  is  the  fact  that,  in  each  of 
the  two  most  northerly  rows  of  the  great  phalanx,  the 
two  central  square  pedestals  (Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4)  were 
or  had  been  inscribed  with  trilingual  cuneiform  records. 
These  were  cut  around  the  ledge,  but  the  fall  of  the 
columns  had  so  materially  injured  them  that  only  one 
copy  remained  entire — written  unfortunately  in  the  lan- 
o;ua2;e  which  is  least  known  of  the  three.  As  if  in  an- 
ticipation  of  the  fate  which  awaited  the  edifice,  and  of 
the  prospect  that  one  copy  at  least  might  escape  the  gene- 
ral destruction,  each  set  of  inscriptions  was  repeated 
four  times.  The  Scythic  version  occupied  the  western 
side,  the  Persian  faced  towards  the  south,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian pointed  eastward.  The  fourth  side  was  plain. 
Each  version  was  deeply  cut  in  five  lines,  and  extended 
six  feet  four  inches  in  length,  and  seven  inches  in  breadth. 

*  See  Ground  Plan  of  Palace  at  page  366. 


INSCRIPTIONS  OF  ARTAXERXES  MNEMON.  371 

Upon  pedestal  No  1,  the  Scythic  version  was  per- 
fect, the  Persian  had  lost  the  l^st  two  lines,  and  the 
whole  of  the  central  portion  in  the  Babylonian  copy  was 
destroyed  by  the  fall  of  the  bull-capital. 

Of  pedestal  No.  3,  a  few  characters  of  the  Persian 
alone  remain.  The  monolith  No.  2,  is  likewise  much 
damaged,  having  only  fragments  of  the  Persian  and 
Babylonian  copies  still  existing.  It  had  been  injured  on 
some  previous  occasion,  either  by  flaws  or  otherwise,  be- 
cause pieces  of  the  same  stone  had  been  fitted  in  and 
secured  with  iron  or  lead,  over  which  the  inscriptions 
had  been  cut. 

Of  the  pedestal  No.  4,  ^  nothing  is  left  but  the  base- 
ment slab  to  determine  its  former  position.  There  can, 
however,  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  inscribed  like  the 
others,  because  these  four  columns  mark  the  position  of 
the  principal  facade. 

These  records  are,  in  many  respects,  highly  interesting. 
They  are  the  sole  memorials  extant  of  Artaxerxes  Mne- 
mon,  the  conqueror  of  the  Greeks  at  the  battle  of  Cun- 
axa,  and  they  record  the  completion  of  the  edifice,  which 
had  been  commenced  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 
as  stated  by  Pliny.'""  This  fact  is  important,  because.it 
enables  us,  with  a  tolerable  degree  of  certainty,  to  con- 
jecture the  age  of  the  great  colonnade  at  Persepolis,  as  to 
which  much  doubt  exists.  It  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  work  of  Xerxes,  because  it  bears  a  com- 
memorative tablet  of  that  monarch ;  but  Sir  Henry 
Eawlinsont  has  suggested  the  probal)ility  of  its  original 
foundation  by  his  father  Darius.  That  such  was  really 
the  case  is  corroborated  by  the  general  agreement  in 
plan  and  measurement,  as  well  as  in  the  details  of  the 

*  Infra  est  Susiane,  in  quri  vetusrcgia  Persariim  Susa,  k  Djrio  Hystaspis 
filio  condita.     Liber  vi.,  c.  27. 

t  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  x.,  p.  271. 


372  ORTHOGRAPHICAL  INACCURACIES. 

Siisian  and  Persepolitan  structures.  It  is,  I  think,  highly 
probable  that  they  were  designed  by  the  same  architect, 
altliough  finislied  at  different  and  distant  periods. 

From  the  perfect  Scythic  version  of  the  inscriptions, 
aided  by  the  Persian  text,  Mr  Norris'"  suggests  the 
following  translation  as  not  being  very  far  from  the 
truth  : — 

"  Says  Artaxerxes,  the  great  king,  the  king  of  kings, 
the  king  of  the  country,  the  king  of  this  earth,  the  son 
of  king  Darius  : — Darius  was  the  son  of  king  Artaxerxes, 
'Artaxerxes  was  the  son  of  king  Xerxes,  Xerxes  was  the 
son  of  king  Darius,  Darius  was  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  the 
Aclipemenian.  Darius,  my  ancestor,  anciently  built  this 
temple  (or  edifice),  and  afterwards  it  was  rejjaired  ('?)  by 
Artaxerxes,  my  grandfather.  By  the  aid  of  Ormazd,  I 
placed  the  effigies  of  Tanaitis  and  IMithra  in  the  temple. 
May  Ormazd,  Tanaitis,  and  Mithra  protect  me,  with  the 
(other)  gods  (1),  and  all  that  I  have  done.     ..." 

Mr  Norris  remarks  that  "  the  loose  way  in  which  this 
inscription  was  engraved,  the  abnormal  spelling,  ai:.d  the 
unusual  forms  of  the  letters,  all  combine,  with  gram- 
matical inaccuracies,  to  throw  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
a  satisfactory  explanation  of  that  part  of  the  int;cription 
which  follows  the  usual  introductory  phrases.  The 
Persian  text  would  have  been  of  great  assistance;  but 
it  unfortunately  fails  us  where  the  difficulties  begin, 
the  last  two  lines  being  almost  completely  broken  away, 
^dthout  leaving  a  single  entire  word." 

It  is  probable  that  the  orthographical  inaccuracies 
above  mentioned  are  the  result  of  the  language  having 
become  materially  corrupted  during  the  Achsemenian 
period,  or  between  the  time  of  Darius,  surnamed  Hystas- 

*  For  further  information  on  this  subject,  I  must  refer  the  reader  to 
Mr  Norris's  elaborate  and  learned  memoir  '"on  the  Scythic  Inscriptions" 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  voL  xv.,  p.  157-162. 


COURT  OF  THE  GARDEN  IN  ESTHER'S  PALACE.    373 

pes,  and  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, — or  it  may  be,  as  Mr 
Norris  seems  to  think,  that  these  irregularities  arise 
from  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  writer  to  make  the 
translation  as  literal  as  possible,  even  to  the  errors  of 
the  original. 

There  is  another  point  which  gives  extreme  interest 
to  this  inscription.  I  have  elsewhere  *  quoted  valuable 
authority  as  to  the  identity  of  Ahasuerus,  the  husband 
of  Esther,  with  the  Xerxes  of  Greek  authors.  If  this  be 
admitted,  we  cannot  but  regard  the  edifice  in  question 
as  the  actual  building  referred  to  in  the  following  verses 
of  Scripture  : — 

"  The  king  made  a  feast  unto  all  the  people  that  were 
present  in  Shiishari  the  palace,  both  unto  great  and 
small,  seven  days  in  the  court  of  the  garde7i  of  the  king's 
palace;  where  were  white,  green,  and  blue  hangings 
fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver 
rings  and  pillars  of  marble:  the  beds  were  of  gold  and 
silver,  upon  a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue,  and  white,  and 
black  marble."  t 

It  was  here,  among  the  pillars  of  marble  in  the  court 
of  the  garden  in  Shushan  the  palace,  "when  the  heart 
of  the  king  was  merry  with  wine,"  that  the  order  was 
given  for  queen  Vashti  to  overstep  the  bounds  of  Orien- 
tal female  modesty,  and  "  shew  the  people  and  the 
princes  her  beauty."  | 

By  referring  to  the  plan  of  the  ruins,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  position  of  the  great  colonnade  corre- 
sponds with  the  account  above  given.  It  stands  on 
an  elevation  in  the  centre  of  the  mound,  the  remainder 
of  which  we  may  well  imagine  to  have  been  occupied 
after  the  Persian  fashion,  with  a  garden  and  fountains 
Thus  the  colonnade  would  represent  the  "  court  of  tht 
garden  of  the  king's  palace,"  with  its  "piUars  of  mar 

*  See  note,  page  339.      t  Esther  i.  5,  6.      %  Esther  i.  10,  11. 


374  COLUMN  AND  CURTAIN  ARCHITECTURE. 

ble."  I  am  even  inclined  to  believe  that  the  expression 
"Slnishan  the  palace"  applies  especially  to  this  portion 
of  the  existinir  ruins  in  contradistinction  to  the  citadel  and 
the  city  of  Shushan.'"' 

But  to  return  once  more  to  the  excavations.  In  the 
hope  of  solving  the  difficulty  as  to  the  connexion  which 
existed  between  the  central  and  outer  groups  of  colunms, 
trenches  were,  in  several  instances,  dug  between  them  to 
ascertain  if  there  had  been  any  intermediate  wall  for  the 
support  of  a  roof.  At  that  time  I  had  not  seen  Mr 
Fergusson's  valuable  work,  recently  referred  to,  nor  had 
I  any  indications  of  his  theory  on  the  subject.  I  had, 
it  is  true,  noticed  the  foundations  of  two  doorways,  mid- 
way between  the  central  gToup  and  the  front  portico  at 
Persepolis  ;  but,  as  these  were  the  only  indications  of  aii 
existing  wall  at  that  place,  I  was  not  satisJBed  on  the 
point,  and  determined  to  investigate  the  subject  at 
Susa.  My  trenches  all  proved  fruitless  :  there  was  not 
the  slightest  vestioe  of  such  a  wall  as  Mr  Feimisson 
has  suggested  in  his  restored  plan  t  of  the  Persepolitan 
Great  Hall.  Although  strongly  inclined  to  adopt  a 
similar  idea,  in  order  to  make  the  entire  structure  com- 
pact, I  was  obliged  to  abandon  it.  If  there  had  been 
any  such  wall  at  Susa,  some  portions  of  it  must  have 
been  discovered,  even  if  constructed  of  bricks.  Mr  Fer- 
gusson's argument  is  partly  founded  on  the  fact,  that 
in  two  of  the  smaller  palaces  at  Persepolis,  such  walls 
do  actually  remain.  -  But  this,  I  think,  rather  invali- 
dates his  theory,  because,  if  they  were  not  desti'oyed  in 
the  smaller  edifices,  there  was  less  likelihood  of  their 
Ijeing  carried  away  from  the  more  massive  buildings. 

As  regards  Susa,  however,  there  is,  in  my  opinion,  a 
strong  proof  that  such  walls  did  not  exist.     It  cannot 

*  To  this  point  I  shall  have  occasion  again  to  allude,  see  page  429. 
t  "Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored,"  p.  144. 


COLUMN  AND  CUilTAIN  ARCHITECTURE.  375 

otherwise  be  well  explained  why  there  should  be  no 
inscription  on  the  north  side  of  the  four  colunnis* — that 
side  wliich  was  undoubtedly  the  principal  front  of  the 
edifice, — except  that  the  record  miglit  Ije  protected  from 
the  influence  of  the  weather.  At  Persepolis  and  Nineveh 
it  was  customary  to  place  the  commemorative  records  in 
the  most  cons^jicuous  position  at  the  entrances,  and, 
unless  for  the  reason  above  assigned,  it  is  difficult  of 
explanation  why  the  same  principle  was  not  carried  out 
at  Susa.  I  feel  therefore  persuaded,  notwithstanding  the 
strong  arguments  which  have  been  adduced  to  the  con- 
trary, that  the  outer  groups  or  porticoes  stood  distinct 
from  the  central  square  of  columns,  or  connected  simply 
bv  means  of  curtains.  It  seems  to  be  to  this  that  reference 
is  made  in  the  "  hangings  fastened  with  cords  to  silver 
rings  and  pillars  of  marble"  t  at  the  feast  of  the  royal 
Ahasuerus.  Nothing  could  be  more  appropriate  than  this 
method  at  Susa  and  Persepolis,  the  spring  residences  of 
the  Persian  monarchs.  It  must  be  considered  that  these 
columnar  halls  were  the  equivalents  of  the  modern  throne- 
rooms,  that  here  all  public  business  was  despatched,  and 
that  here  the  king  might  sit  and  enjoy  the  beauties  of 
the  landscape.  With  the  rich  plains  of  Susa  and  Persepolis 
before  him,  he  could  well,  after  his  winter's  residence  at 
Babylon,  dispense  with  massive  walls,  which  would  only 
check  the  ^varm  fragrant  breeze  from  those  verdant 
prairies  adorned  with  the  choicest  flowers.  A  massive  roof, 
covering  the  whole  expanse  of  columns,  would  be  too 
cold  and  dismal,  whereas  curtains  around  the  central 
group  would  serve  to  admit  both  light  and  warmth. 
Nothing  can  be  conceived  better  adapted  to  the  climate 
or  the  season. 

The  elevated  position  of  the  Great  Colonnade,  with  the 

*  Numbered  1,  2,  3,  4  on  the  Ground  Plan  at  page  3G6. 
t  Esther  i.  6. 


376  ABSENCE  OF  BAS-RELIEFS. 

somewhat  abrupt  edges  of  the  mound  upon  which  it 
stood,  suggested  the  probability  of  a  sculptured  stylobate 
resembling  that  at  Persepolis.  Without  a  massive  sup- 
port of  some  description,  the  immense  superincumbent 
weight  of  the  columns  must  have  necessarily  caused  the 
platform  to  give  way  at  the  edges.  Several  trenches 
were  therefore  dug  on  all  sides,  but  without  the  discovery 
of  the  smallest  fragment  of  sculpture.  At  the  north-west 
corner,  however,  on  the  edge  of  the  platform,*  and  at  the 
depth  of  about  fifteen  feet,  there  occurred  a  block  of  large 
bricks,  set  in  bitumen,  evidently  the  foundation  of  a  strong 
wall.  I  therefore  conclude  that  the  platform  was  sustained 
by  a  brick  wall,  and  that  neglect  in  repairing  it,  or  wanton 
removal  of  the  bricks,  produced  the  destruction  of  the 
whole  edifice.  The  absence  of  bas-reliefs  at  Susa  need, 
however,  be  no  cause  of  surprise.  Nineveh  and  Persepolis 
are  situated  in  localities  producing  the  stone  of  which  the 
edifices  are  constructed.  Susa,  on  the  contrary,  stands 
on  a  gravel  plain,  thirty  miles  removed  from  the  nearest 
point  whence  building  stone  is  procurable,  t 

The  habitable  portion  of  the  Susian  palace,  erected  by 
Darius  and  his  successors,  undoubtedly  stood  on  the  south 
of,  and  immediately  behind  the  coliunnar  hall.  Traces 
of  brick  walls  were  there  uncovered,  but,  the  depth  of 
earth  being  so  shallow  above  them,  it  was  useless  to  exca- 
vate further  in  that  quarter. 

The  similarity  between  the  buildings  of  Persepolis  and 
Susa  is  so  great  that  any  peculiarity  observable  in  the 
one  will  equally  illustrate  the  architecture  of  the.  other. 

At  F  on  the  General  Plan, 
t  The  dark  blue  limestone  of  the  Susa  monoliths  is  extremely  hard  and 
difficult  to  work  In  parts,  however,  its  texture  is  slaty,  and  to  this  cause 
may  be  attributed,  in  some  degree,  the  destruction  of  the  columns. 
It  was  most  likely  obtained  from  the  valley  of  the  river  Kerkhah,  near 
Ptil-i-Taug,  or  from  the  adjoining  range  of  the  Keblr  K(xh,  whence  it  must 
have  been  conveyed  on  rafts  to  Susa. 


ORIGIN  OF  SUSIAN  AND  PERSEPOLITAN  ARCHITECTURE.    377 

Even  if  not  erected  by  the  same  architect,  they  were  the 
works  of  the  same  dynasty,  and  they  proceeded  from  one 
source.  They  form  a  distinct  style  of  architecture,  and 
it  now  becomes  necessary  to  offer  a  few  remarks  upon  it. 
The  large  hollow  member  with  leafy  ornaments — form- 
ing, as  it  were,  the  cornice  of  certain  Persepolitan 
structures — is  nowhere  else  observable  except  in  the 
ruined  edifices  which  line  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  or  deck 
the  Egy[Dtian  plains ;  but  the  palaces  of  the  Achoemenian 
kings  lack  the  massiveness  which  is  the  grand  charac- 
teristic of  Egyptian  buildings.  The  bulls  of  Persepolis 
and  Susa  remind  us  at  once  of  their  prototypes  in  the 
Assyrian  palaces :  the  flutings  of  the  columns  are  almost 
counterparts  of  the  delicate  chasings  of  the  Greek  pillars, 
whilst  the  palm-ornaments  of  the  capitals  point  to  the 
fallen  empires  whose  splendour  once  mirrored  itself,  even 
as  their  ruins  are  now  reflected,  in  the  waters  of  the 
lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  It  is  worthy  of  notice, 
however,  that  the  palaces  of  Susa  and  Persepolis  are  much 
inferior  to  those  which  they  resemble  in  the  several 
empires  whose  remains  are  still  preserved  to  us,  and  that, 
far  from  being  (as  M.  Flandin  remarks,  in  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes)  "  worthy  to  be  classed  with  Greek 
art,"  they  were  rather  the  works  of  a  powerful  monarch, 
who  wanted  the  skill  and  taste  to  direct  the  labour  which 
his  power  commanded.  Such  a  one  was  Darius,  the 
son  of  Hystaspes,  who,  having  subdued  a  people  which 
had  suflered  the  luxury  of  art  to  rust  its  sword,  was 
ambitious,  "  by  the  grace  of  Ormazd,  who  had  brought 
help  to  him,"  to  make  his  palaces  outshine,  by  prodigality 
of  ornament,  those  of  the  nations  he  had  conquered,  and 
to  "  engrave  with  an  iron  pen  in  the  rock  for  ever,"  in 
commendable  simplicity,  the  record  of  his  deeds.  The 
purity  and  artistic  feelings  of  the  vanquished  he  could 
not  transplant,  nor  perhaps  even  appreciate.      It   may 


378    ORIGIN  OF  SUSIAN  AND  PERSEPOLITAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

have  contented  him  to  borrow  forms  indiscriminately 
from  all,  so  that  each  of  the  hundred  columns""'  surround- 
ing his  throne  might  bear  upon  its  fluted  shaft  the  lotus, 
the  palm,  and  the  bull,  and  symbolize  the  glories  which 
the  vigorous  arms  of  the  Persian  had  gathered  upon  the 
battle-fields  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Greece,  and  Babylonia. 

The  earliest  specimen  of  the  Achsemenian  structures  i!5 
at  IMilrghiib — the  ancient  Passargadse — which  likewise 
bears  the  earliest  cuneatic  record  of  that  dynasty  by 
C}Tus  the  Great.  As  it  is  pretty  generally  admitted  that 
this  alphabet  was  adopted  from  subjected  nations,  and  as 
it  is  invariably  connected  with  their  architecture,  both  at 
Persepolis  and  Susa,  it  rather  adds  confirmation  to  the 
view  here  taken  as  to  the  origin  of  these  unique  specimens 
of  the  building  art. 

In  the  inscription,  upon  the  monolithic  bases  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  Mnemon,  we  read  that  he  raised  a  statue  in 
honour  of  the  goddess  Tanaitis,t  or  Venus  ;  it  is 
interesting  to  corroborate  this  worship,  by  meaiis  of 
excavations  in  a  different  part  of  the  ruins.  In  a  trench,^ 
twenty-two  feet  deep,  at  the  south  west  corner  of  the 
great  platform,  was  discovered  a  collection  of  about  two 

*  The  Great  Palace  at  Persepolis,  it  is  well  known,  is.  more  Fersartim, 
called  "  Chehil  Mindr,"  '•  The  Hundred  Columns,"  although  it  only  ])Ossessed 
seventy-two. 

t  Tanaitis  is  certainly  the  Assyrian  Anaitis,  the  Persian  Anahid,  the 
PhcEuician  Tanith,  and  the  Gieek  Tai^dis  of  some  MSS.  at  least.  The  Persian 
version  of  the  record  still  shews  apart  of  the  name  "  —na/iata;'''  the  Baby- 
lonian has  Anakliitu.  The  Scytliic  word  may  be  read  Tanata.  The 
inscriptions  confirm  the  statement  of  Plutarch,  that  Tanata  was  woishipped 
in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  It  has  been  usual,  in  printed  (Jreek 
works,  to  alter  the  name  of  Tanata,  or  TavnU,  to  'AwiiVis  ;  but  the  Phoeni- 
cian Tanith,  the  present  inscription,  and  the  authority  of  good  M.S.S.  of 
Strabo,  shew  that  Tavats  was  ecpially  admissible  ;  and,  if  the  Very  pi'obable 
conjecture  of  Gesenius  as  to  the  identity  of  Tanata  and  the  Fgy[)tian  god- 
dess Neith  be  correct,  the  reason  of  the  variation  is  plain,  ta  being  merely 
the  Egyptian  feminine  article.  See  Mr  Norris'  ^lemoir  on  Scytliic  Inscrip- 
tions. Journal  of  lioyal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  160. 

1  K  on  Plan. 


WORSHIP  OF  TANAITIS  OR  VENUS. 


379 


hundred  terra-cotta  figures,  the  greater  number  of  whicli 
were  nude  representations  of  the  goihless.  Venus  was  es- 
pecially worshipped  at  Bab}don,  and  her  clay  models  are 


Clay  figures  of  Venus  from  Susa. 

among  the  most  common  of  those  found  throughout  Baby- 
lonia. Those  discovered  at  Susa  are  altogether  of  a  different 
type,  and  exhibit  some  remarkable  peculiarities,  shewn  in 
the  woodcut. 

The  hands,  as  usual,  hold  the  breasts,  as  emblems  of 
fruitfulness  ;  the  features  are  very  carefully  moulded,  and 
present  a  decidedly  Assyrian  profile  ;  the  hair  is  clipped 
close  to  the  forehead,  like  the  modern  fashion  of  the 
Persian  women  ;  and  the  head-dress  is  high  and  pro- 
jecting, like  the  cap  frequently  worn  by  Jewish  ladies  in 
the  East.  The  ears,  neck,  wrists,  and  ankles  are  adorned 
with  their  appropriate  ornaments.  The  features  and  head- 
dress are  perfectly  different  from  any  found  elsewhere. 
There  was  evidently  a  great  demand  for  these  statuettes, 
which  were  cast  from  several  moulds,  and  it  appeared 
as  thouo'li  the  trench  had  descended  into  the  imao;e- 
maker's  store.     In  an  adjoining  trench,'"*  was  recovered 

*  J  on  Plan. 


380  WORSHIP  OF  TANAITIS  OR  VENUS. 

one   of  tlie    clay   moulds   in   which    the    figures   were 
cast/^ 

There  occurred  also,  in  the  same  trench,  other  male 
and  female  figures,  playing  on  instruments  resembling 
the  native  zantur,  together  with  several  primitive  re- 
presentations of  domestic  annuals — the  Indian  bull,  the 
sheep,  and  horse. 

•  In  a  small  chamber,  in  the  south-east  palace  at  Nimrtid,  I  discovered  a 
large  collection  of  very  beautiful  ivories,  among  which  were  a  great  variety 
of  nude  figures,  frequently  in  the  same  posture  as  those  above  described. 
In  several  instances,  they  composed  gi'oups  as  column  shafts.  From  the 
frequency  of  their  occurrence,  I  concluded  that  they  had  formed  part  of  an 
ornamental  shi'ine  dedicated  to  Venus.  Short  accounts  of  these  ivories, 
with  figures  of  the  most  remarkable,  are  contained  in  the  Literary  Gazette 
of  April  5,  1856,  and  in  the  Illustrated  London  News  of  April  12,  1856. 
The  originals  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Hostility  and  Reconciliation — An  Arrival — Tlie  Lur  Woikmen — Insur- 
rection of  Seyicls — Administration  of  Justice — Novel  Method  of 
Smoking — Colonel  Williams'  Horses  Stolen — An  Arab  attack  Re- 
pelled— The  Haughty  Humbled — Besieged  by  a  Harem. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  tliat  tlie  progress  of  the  ex- 
cavations was  unattended  with  difficulty  and  annoy- 
ance. On  quitting  Dizfid  for  the  ruins,  the  services 
of  only  seventy  Lurs  were  secured,  under  the  impression 
that,  as  soon  as  the  work  began,  many  Arabs  would  be 
induced  to  ofifer  themselves.  In  this,  however,  I  was  dis- 
appointed, and  the  letters  furnished  me  by  Khanler  Mirza 
failed  to  produce  the  desirable  result ;  the  'Ali  Kethir 
were  not  to  be  moved  from  their  obstinate  determination. 
Sheikh  Gliafil,  the  chief  of  the  whole  tribe,  whose  tents 
were  situated  about  three  miles  from  the  mounds, 
was  especially  directed  to  see  to  my  safety,  and  to  sup- 
ply me  with  workmen ;  but  his  remark,  on  reading  the 
Prince's  letter,  was  to  the  effect  that  he  would  not  send 
men — "the  Shah-zada  (Prince)  might  cut  him  and  his 
tribe  to  pieces  ;  his  sons  and  wives  were  the  Prince's,  but 
he  would  not  send  a  man  to  dig  at  Shush  for  a  Firenghi!" 
With  his  rival,  Sheikh  Mahommed,*  encamped  with  his 

*  The  'Ali  Kotlilr  Arabs  are  divided  into  thirty-one  tribes,  of  which  the 
Cherim,  Anafija,  Chd'b,  and  Md'la  are  the  only  large  ones.  At  the  time  of 
my  AHsits  to  Susa,  Ghdfil  was  sheikh  of  the  first,  and  Mahoramed-em-Meshdl 
of  the  last. 


382  AN  INSULT. 

people  a  sliort  distance  from  the  mounds  on  the  opi)osite 
side  of  the  Shiiour,  there  was  no  better  success.  His 
reply  to  my  demand  for  workmen  was  the  question,  "how 
the  Prince  permitted  a  Ghyawr  to  excavate  at  Shush !" 
From  another  camp  it  was  stated  that  my  groom  was 
driven  with  sticks  and  stones  wliile  endeavouring  to  pur- 
chase corn  for  my  horses.  A  general  feeling  prevailed  tliat 
the  recent  visit  of  cholera  to  the  province,  was  the  conse- 
quence of  Colonel  "Williams'  excavations,  and  that,  it  would 
return  aojain  with  tenfold  violence,  at  this  second  act  of 
impiety !  It  soon  became  evident  that,  unless  means 
were  taken  to  prevent  it,  I  should  be  exposed  to  gross 
insult.  The  opportunity  was  not  long  in  occurring,  and 
eventually  turned  to  my  advantage. 

On  the  third  day  after  my  tents  were  pitched  at  Shush 
and  the  works  in  full  operation,  Sheikh  JMahommed's 
brother,  with  about  a  dozen  of  his  people,  presented  them- 
selves at  a  trench  where  I  was  watchinoj  the  workmen 
extracting  pieces  of  fluted  columns.  Salutations  were 
expressly  made  to  the  Lurs,  under  the  designation  of 
"Dizfidl,"  for  the  undoubted  purpose  of  excluding  me. 
At  first  I  took  no  notice  of  this  conduct,  regarding  the 
visitors  as  ignorant  Arabs;  but  when  they  followed  me 
about  from  trench  to  trench,  behaving  in  the  same  man- 
ner at  each,  and  holding  conversations  among  themselves 
concerning  "  the  beast,  the  pig,"  &c.,  it  was  evident  that 
a  direct  insult  was  intended  towards  myself.  To  have 
submitted  tamely  would  have  been  productive  of  con- 
tinued annoyance  ;  I  therefore  insisted  on  their  .leaving 
the  trenches  until  they  had  learned  to  treat  me  with  com- 
mon respect.  They  were  not  prepared  for  this  high  tone 
from  a  Christian,  and  therefore  took  their  departure  with 
strono:  siirns  of  surprise  and  disgust.  Determined  to 
strike  the  iron  while  hot,  I  despatched  the  Prince's  man 
to  Sheikh  Mahommed,  demanding  an  apology  for  this 


RECONCILIATION.  383 

gratuitous  insult  on  the  part  of  his  ])rother.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day,  Mahommed  himself  sought  an  interview,  and 
begged  that  the  offender  might  be  forgiven.  "  He  is  an 
Arab,"  said  he,  "and  knows  no  better."  His  brother  also 
confessed  that  he  had  acted  with  great  impropriety,  but  was 
sorry  for  his  behaviour.  Thus  an  excellent  opportunity 
arose  for  conciliating  my  nearest  neighbours,  and  at  the 
same  time  of  explaining  that  I  had  no  desire  they  should 
act  contrary  to  their  prejudices  in  working  at  the  ex- 
cavations. To  prove  that  I  possessed- due  and  proper 
authority  for  my  proceedings,  the  Shah's  firman  was  ex- 
hibited. Sheikh  Mahommed  received  this  precious  docu- 
ment standing  ;  he  carefully  examined  the  seal,  kissed 
it,  muttered  a  prayer,  and  then  placed  it  reverently  on 
his  head.  It  was  then  handed  to  his  brother,  who  did 
likewise. 

The  old  man's  cpiet  demeanour  and  pleasant  counten- 
ance were  a  strong  contrast  to  the  roughness  and  ill-looks 
of  his  tribe,  and  the  interview  between  us  evidently  told 
likewise  in  my  favour.  He  became  particularly  commu- 
nicative, and,  from  that  day,  he  and  his  brother  were  my 
stanch  friends.  With  the  exception  of  excavating  in  the 
mounds,  they  willingly  aided  me  in  anything  I  might  re- 
quire, and,  during  my  stay,  I  was  obliged  to  them  both 
for  many  acts  of  assistance  and  friendly  feeling. 

A  few  days  after  this  interview  I  was  enal)lcd  to  test 
this  newly  formed  friendship.  A  scrap  of  paper  was  one 
morning  put  into  my  hands,  addressed  in  European  hand- 
writing to  Colonel  Williams,  with  the  intimation  that 
the  writer  Avaited  a  reply  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Kerkhah.  It  proved  to  be  from  Lieutenant  elackson, 
I.N.,  who  was  on  his  way  to  join  the  English  party. 
He  had  recently  arrived  from  Boml)ay,  and  went  to  Bagh- 
dad in  expectation  of  finding  Colonel  Williams  at  Men- 
delf,  l)ut,  being  too  late  to  overtake  him  there,  he  set  out 


384  LIEUTENANT  JACKSON. 

once  more  on  tlie  Tigris,  hoping  to  reach  his  chief  at 
Hawiza.  The  native  boat,  in  which  he  took  passage, 
as  bad  hick  would  have  it,  ran  aground.  Eighteen  days 
elapsed,  and,  there  being  no  chance  of  the  vessel  floating 
until  the  annual  rise  of  the  river,  the  voyager  decided 
on  making  his  way  overland.  He  fortunately  made  the 
acquaintance  of  a  Benl  Lam  sheikh,  who  hospitably  un- 
dertook to  see  him  safely  to  the  banks  of  the  Kerkhah. 
In  passing  the  Segwend  Liirs,  one  of  their  tushmals,  or 
chiefs,  swore  that,  but  for  his  protector,  his  life  would 
have  been  the  penalty  for  his  temerity  in  venturing 
among  them  ;  in  token  of  the  truth  of  which  assertion  he 
inhospitably  turned  the  unlucky  traveller  out  of  his 
tent  into  the  rain,  leaving  him  to  find  shelter  elsewhere. 
After  various  other  adventures,  he  at  length  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  bank  of  the  Kerkhah,  where  the  Arabs  re- 
fused to  provide  him  with  skins  to  form  a  raft.  He 
wisely  wrote  to  the  elclii,  who,  he  understood,  was  dig- 
ging up  piles  of  gold  and  silver  cups  at  Shush !  An  ap- 
plication from  me  to  Sheikh  Mahommed  was  instantly 
attended  to  ;  sheepskins  were  collected  from  the  women, 
and  in  a  few  hours  my  friend  was  safely  and  gladly 
lodged  in  my  tent. 

Sheikh  ]\Iahommed's  camp  was  my  farmyard ;  it 
supplied  barley  and  straw  for  my  animals,  and  every 
species  of  Arab  luxury  for  our  own  sustenance.  And 
yet,  although  my  immediate  neighbours  now  behaved 
so  well,  others  at  a  greater  distance  exhibited  less  friendly 
disposition  towards  m)^  party.  Whenever  any  Lilrs  were 
caught  straying  far  from  the  mounds,  or  were  engaged  in 
cutting  wood  on  the  banks  of  the  Shaour,  they  were  at- 
tacked, and  not  unfrequently  some  awkward  wounds  were 
inflicted.  On  one  occasion  a  workman  was  carried  into 
camp  speared  in  a  frightful  manner  by  a  party  of  Arabs. 
In  order  to  suppress  such  outrages,  it  became  necessary 


THE  LUR  WORKMEN.  385 

to  organise  well-armed,  foraging  parties,  who  were  accom- 
panied by  a  chief  answerable  to  me  for  the  behaviour  of 
his  men.  This  had  a  good  effect,  and  the  cowardly 
attacks  ceased. 

Having  satisfactorily  ascertained  tliat  it  was  useless 
expecting  the  Arabs  to  aid  me,  I  determined  on  increasing 
my  force  by  engaging  men  in  Dizfiil.  It  soon  became 
known  that  workmen  were  required,  and  the  mounds 
were  besieged  by  applicants ;  no  farther  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  raising  three  hundred  and  fifty  men.  The 
principal  number  were  Ltirs,  but  many  were  a  mixed  race 
from  the  town, — half  Ltir,  half  Arab,  hating  the  Frank, 
but  greedy  for  his  kerans.  This  additional  force  was 
distributed  at  various  positions  on  the  mounds,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  coloured  lines  on  the  general  plan  of  the' 
ruins.  The  men  were  divided  into  gangs;  the  strong 
Ltirs  used  the  long-handled  spades  of  the  country,  and, 
like  Irish  "navvies,"  threw  the  earth  high  out  of  the 
open  trenches,  while  the  town's-people,  less  accustomed  tO' 
such  hard  work,  filled  baskets,  and  hoisted  the  loose  earth 
from  the  tunnels  by  means  of  pullies.  None  could,  how- 
ever, forget  the  predictions  of  the  priests,  that  some 
accident  would  inevitably  befall  the  sacrilegious  wretches 
who  dared  to  assist  the  operations  of  the  Ghyawr.  In 
order  to  avert  this  supposed  danger,  the  party  at  each- 
trench  elected  a  mulla — one  of  themselves — who  every 
now  and  then  extemporized  a  prayer,  calling  on  'All  to- 
save  and  defend  them  from  aU  ills  likely  to  arise  from 
digging  at  Shush,  and  receiving  the  wages  of  an  infidel,. 
"  whom  might  'AU  curse."  Each  invocation  was  loudly 
responded  to  by  three  earnest  cries  of  "  Ya,  'AH  ! "  (Oh, 
'Ali).^'     The  echo  was  taken  up  by  the  adjoining  trench,. 

•  It  will  be  remembered  that  'All  is  the  patron  saint  of  the  Persians. 
The  names  of  Allah  (God)  or  Mohammed  are  seldom  invoked  by  them,  as 
they  are  by  the  Turks  and  Arabs  of  the  Sunni  sect. 


386  THE  LUR  WORKMEN. 

and  the  mounds,  from  end  to  end,  constantly  resounded 
with  this  oft-repeated  pra3^er. 

The  accession  of  Dizfulis  to  the  excavations  was,  in  one 
respect,  unwelcome  :  they  brought  bigotry  along  witli 
them.  The  Lurs  were  tolerant ;  they  chiefly  belonged  to 
that  extraordinary  sect  called  'All  Ilahls,"^  who  believe 
that  the  Deity  has  vouchsafed  to  man  a  thousand  and 
one  successive  incarnations  of  the  godhead,  and  that  the 
most  perfect  development  of  his  presence  took  place  in 
]>enjamin,  David,  and  'All. 

The  Seyids,  or  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  were,  as  I 
have  said,  induced  at  last  to  overcome  their  scruples,  and 
I  was  surprised  one  morning  to  see  no  less  than  seventeen 
green-tui'baned  individuals,  from  Dizful,  ranged  before 
my  tent  door.     If  they  had  not  been  armed  with  spades, 

•  Very  little  is  really  known  of  this  singular  sect.  It  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  what  are  the  tenets  of  their  religion,  because  they  are  very 
jealous  of  inquiry  concerning  this  subject,  although  tolerant  of  other 
opinions.  From  their  many  Jewish  names  and  general  physiognomy,  it  is 
supposed  by  some  travellers  that  they  are  of  Israelitish  descent.  Their 
religion  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  Jewish,  Sabaean,  Christian,  and  Moham- 
medan belief.  Their  great  holy  place  is  the  tomb  of  Baba-Yadgar,  on  the 
mountain  fort  of  Ban  Zdrda,  near  Zohdb,  which  was  at  one  time  regarded 
as  the  abode  of  Ehas.  In  1851, 1  spent  some  months  among  the  'Ali  Ilahis 
of  Kirrind,  but  can  add  Httle  to  what  we  previously  knew  concerning  them. 
They  say  to  Christians :  "  Our  religion  differs  but  little  from  yours  !  we 
driuk  wine,  eat  pig,  and  are  not  obliged,  like  the  Mohammedan,  to  pray." 
The  men  of  Kirrind  are  brave  and  handsome,  and  the  women  fail*  and  good- 
looking.  The  holiday-dress  of  the  latter  consists  of  a  bright-coloured  short 
jacket  of  velvet,  having  a  lappet  in  front,  and  the  breast  laced  like  the  Swiss 
costumes  of  Berne  and  Lucerne.  They  mix  freely  with  the  men  of  their 
tribes,  and  are  less  particular  than  Mohammedan  ladies  in  covering  their 
faces.  In  fact,  at  their  weddings,  only  ladies  who  are  "engaged"  are  re- 
quired to  conceal  their  features,  which  is  done  by  throwing  a  kerchief  over 
the  head.  The  Kirrindls  follow  the  profession  of  their  Deity  Ddwud  (David), 
who  is  said  to  have  been  a  blacksmith  ;  their  iron-work  is  deservedly  cele- 
brated throughout  Persia.  To  escape  persecution,  the  'All  Ilahis  profess 
Islamism  when  they  descend  into  the  plains,  but  in  the  mountains  they 
feel  free  to  follow  their  own  opinions.  For  further  information  concerning 
this  sect,  consult  the  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  ix., 
p.  36. 


INSURRECTION  OF  SEYIDS.  3iS7 

I  might  have  imagined  them  to  be  a  deputation  from  the 
mujtehid,  mth  orders  to  put  a  stop  to  my  proceedings. 
Several  of  these  gentry  were  placed  together  in  one 
trench,  but  so  many  green  turbans  in  close  proximity 
could  not  fiiil  to  produce  mischief !  They  were  very  ob- 
stinate, and  frequently  refused  to  obey  instructions. 

One  day  my  servant,  carrying  them  a  message,  was  at- 
tacked with  very  abusive  language  by  the  mulla  of  the 
party.  On  its  being  repeated,  Ovannes  struck  the  holy 
man  a  violent  blow,  whereon  the  latter  raised  his  spade, 
and  endeavoured  viciously  to  cut  the  other  down,  calling 
on  his  fellow  saints  to  resent  the  insult  inflicted  on  one  of 
their  number  : — "  A  Seyid !  a  descendant  of  the  Prophet, 
to  be  struck  by  a  Ghya^vr !  Will  you  suffer  this  1  Seyids  ! 
aid  me,  in  the  name  of  'AH  ! "  Watching  the  whole  scene 
from  the  summit  of  the  great  mound,  and  fearing  worse 
might  ensue,  I  ran  to  the  spot  just  in  time  to  save 
Ovannes  a  blow,  which  would  inevitably  have  cleft  his 
skull,  and  wrenched  the  implement  from  the  fellow's 
hand,  as  he  still  more  vehemently  raised  his  outcry 
against  myself.  On  refusing  either  to  be  pacified  or  to 
quit  the  trench,  I  bestowed  his  own  epithets  upon  him- 
self, together  with  a  succession  of  hearty  kicks  each  time 
he  opened  his  mouth  to  call  on  his  brother  Seyids  to 
"exterminate  the  Ghyawrs  1"  As  soon  as  he  was  fairly 
driven  ofi"  the  mound,  I  returned  to  the  trench  and  told 
his  fraternity  that  this  summary  punishment  to  one  of  the 
order  was  inflicted  out  of  no  disrespect  towards  themselves ; 
but,  so  long  as  they  worked  for  me,  I  insisted  on  being 
obeyed,  and  would  submit  to  no  insolence  or  bigotry. 
This  example  had  the  desired  efi'ect ;  from  that  moment 
my  influence,  like  that  of  every  stern  governor,  small  or 
great,  in  Persia,  was  established.  It  was  soon  discovered 
that  the  Ghy^wr  could  act  impartially,  and  be  just  in  his 
dealings.      My  decision  was  frequently  appealed  to  in 


388  ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

matters  of  dispute,  and  on  some  occasions  the  wliole  of 
the  workmen  assembled  to  ask  advice. 

They  all  huddled  together  at  night  into  Daniel's  tomb, 
and  their  wild  songs  resounded  through  the  solitude  of 
the  ruins,  sometimes  interrupted  by  loud  cries  of  "  Ya ! 
'All."  On  a  few  grand  occasions  the  exterior  of  the 
building  was  illuminated.  Lamps  were  placed  at  inter- 
vals around  the  edges  of  the  veranda  and  terrace,  as  well 
as  upon  the  spire  of  the  penetralia,  the  effect  of  which 
was  very  striking, — the  white  spire  of  the  edifice  seemed 
to  be  semi-transparent. 

Every  man  took  care  to  receive  his  own  wages,  and  to 
secure  them  in  his  own  private  bank — his  girdle — honesty 
not  being  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Persian 
race.  A  Lfir  was  one  night  caught  in  the  act  of  robbing 
his  next  neighbour,  and,  the  ker4ns  being  found  upon  his 
person,  he  could  not  do  otherwise  than  confess  his  guilt. 
Next  morning  he  was  brought  to  me  by  the  whole  of  the 
workmen  to  be  punished.  I  offered  to  send  him  into 
Dizful  to  be  submitted  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the 
authorities.  "  No  !  No  !"  was  the  general  cry,  "  Punish 
him  here!  Punish  him  here!"  The  culprit  stepped  for- 
ward and  repeated  the  request,  kneeling  down  and  kissing 
my  feet !  The  reason  of  this  was  soon  explained.  If  the 
man  were  sent  to  Dizful,  he  would  not  only  have  the 
soles  of  his  feet  beaten  to  a  jelly,  but  the  kerans,  the 
cause  of  the  dire  offence,  would,  by  some  magical  process 
or  other,  disappear  into  the  pockets  of  the  jailers,  and 
probably  an  additional  sum  be  filched  from  both  parties 
concerned.  To  avoid  this,  it  was  agreed,  in  full  conclave, 
to  ask  me  to  distribute  justice ;  therefore,  to  satisfy  all 
parties,  I  consented  to  the  arrangement.  The  stolen 
money  was  duly  paid  over  to  the  proper  owner,  and 
twenty  blows  were  inflicted  on  the  person  of  the  criminal, 
after  which  he  was  dismissed  the  service — not,  however. 


A  NOVEL  PIPE.  389 

l)efore  he  had  kissed  my  feet ;  after  which  the  whole  party 
■proceeded  to  their  trenches,  exchiiming : — "  This  is  some- 
thing like  justice !  where  shall  we  get  such  justice  in 
Persia!" 

After  these  little  episodes,  order  and  regularity  were 
fully  established  in  the  trenches,  the  only  variation  +o  our 
day's  labour  being  when  Sheikh  Ghafil,  Mohammed,  or  a 
■neighbouring  chief  came  to  look  and  wonder,  and  depart ; 
or  when  a  general  distribution  of  tobacco  took  place  in 
return  for  a  hard  day's  work,  or  an  extraordinary  piece  of 
good  fortune. 

An  occasional  present  of  tobacco  produced  an  exhilar- 
ating effect  upon  the  excavators  ;  without  making  the 
frantic  demonstrations  of  the  Madan  Arabs  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates,  the  Lurs  dug  to  desperation,  and  yelled 
forth  their  strange  mountain  cries,  amidst  incessant  calls 
on  the  ubiquitous  'Ali.  Having  but  few  pipes,  they 
adopted  a  primitive  and  ingenious  method  of  inhaling  the 
magic  cloud.  With  a  little  water,  the  earth  at  the  edge  of 
the  trench  was  converted  into  a  tenacious  paste ;  two  holes 
were  made  in  it  having  an  underground  communication 
between  them  of  three  or  four  inches  in  lenoth.  The 
tobacco  was  then  placed  in  one  hole,  and,  at  the  other, 
they,  one  after  the  other,  applied  their  lips  and  sucked  till 
all  was  dry.  The  mouth-piece  of  this  novel  pipe  was 
frequently  made  inside  the  trench,  and  much  resembled 
a  fungTis  adhering  to  the  wall.  It  was  very  amusing 
when  a  fresh  "kaliyun"  was  lighted,  to  see  them  standing 
in  a  circle  waiting  their  turn,  while  one  of  the  number 
knelt  in  the  centre  with  his  mouth  to  the  earth  sucking 
until  quite  blue  in  the  face  with  the  exertion. 

I  had  just  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  scruples  and 
gaining  the  confidence  of  the  workmen,  when  the  British 
Commissioner  and  a  part  of  his  suite,  after  completing 
the  survey  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  frontier,  spent 


390  THE  commissioner's  horses  stolen. 

a  few  days  with  me  on  their  way  northward.  An  event 
then  took  place  which  threatened  to  put  a  somewhat 
premature  stop  to  the  excavations. 

On  the  second  night  of  their  arrival,  two  horses  were 
skilfully  stolen  from  the  encampment,  and  strong  sus- 
picions attached  to  a  sheikh  named  Eizaz,  belonging  to 
the  Cha'b'''  division  of  the  'Mi  Kethir  Arabs,  who  had 
only  pitched  their  tents  the  day  before  on  the  bank  of 
the  Kerkhah:  the  stolen  horses  were  heard  galloping 
towards  them,  and  shortly  afterwards  their  dogs  barked 
vehemently.  Information  of  the  theft  was  immediately 
communicated  to  the  Prince,  and  very  early  the  second 
morning  after  the  robbery.  Colonel  "Williams  set  out 
en  route  for  Mendeli,  leaving  Mr  Jackson  with  me  to 
await  the  arrival  of  Lieutenant  Glascott  from  Shuster. 
Breakfast  was  just  finished  when  I  was  apprized  that 
four  hundred  armed  Arabs,  headed  by  Abdullah,  the 
sheikh  of  the  suspected  Chab,  were  approaching  the 
mounds.  When  the  sheikh  expressed  a  wish  to  see  me, 
not  knowing  the  object,  nor  liking  the  advent  of  such 
a  host  of  light-fingered  gentry,  some  of  my  people, 
without  my  knowledge,  desired  him  to  leave  his  followers 
outside  the  camp.  With  this  request  he  abruptly  declined 
to  comply,  insisting  that  they  should  pass  through'  the 
camp,  and  remarking  that  his  Arabs  were  as  clean  as 
Firenghis. 

The  admission  of  the  posse  comitatiis  was  stoutly 
refused,  and  high  words  ensued  between  the  parties. 
Ovannes  instantly  hastening  to  the  spot,  invited  the 
sheikh  and  the  elders  of  the  tribe  to  my  tent,  but 
asked  him,  as  a  favour,  to  call  a  halt  of  their  attendants. 
The  sheikh  passionately  replied  by  denouncing  him  as  a 

•  These  Arabs  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  great  tribe  of  the 
Chd'b,  although  they  naay  probably  have  originally  emigrated  from  it  to 
the  'Ali  Ketliir. 


AN  ARAB  ATTACK  REPELLED.  391 

Firenghi  dog,  which  was  the  signal  for  a  general  attack  on 
my  people  with  clubs  and  sticks,  a  gun  being  jGbi-ed  by 
way  of  intimidation.  The  Liirs  now  took  part  in  the 
affray.  Delighted  at  the  opportunity  of  facing  the  tribe 
which  had  but  recently  almost  murdered  one  of  their 
party,  they  swarmed  from  the  trenches,  and  rushed  to  the 
attack,  howling  and  yelling  with  right  good  will,  every 
man  armed  with  a  spade,  pickaxe,  or  other  weapon; 
their  guns  being  fortunately  left  in  the  tomb.  The  battle 
now  became  general.  The  Arabs — chiefly  armed  with 
sticks,  and  perhaps  not  relishing  the  aspect  of  the  sharp 
glittering  spades,  or  not  aware  of  our  numbers  which 
now  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  seventy — slowly 
retreated  under  cover  of  an  incessant  shower  of  broken 
bricks. 

All  this  had  taken  place  in  a  few  minutes,  before  it 
was  possible  to  comprehend  the  affair ;  but,  having  no 
desire  to  be  the  cause  of  a  blood-feud,  or  to  risk  the  prose- 
cution of  the  excavations,  I  ran  to  the  scene  of  combat, 
and  used  my  best  endeavours  to  maintain  peace.  The 
Ltirs,  after  much  difficulty,  were  persuaded  to  a  halt,  and 
obey  discipline.  Having  so  far  succeeded,  I  advanced 
alone  towards  the  Arabs,  calling  on  the  sheikh  who  rode  in 
the  rear  to  come  forward  and  speak  to  me.  A  shower  of 
bricks  and  a  volley  of  bullets — for  they  had  about  fift}' 
guns  among  them — was  the  return  for  my  pains,  but  these 
were  fortunately  discharged  without  efiect.  The  indig- 
nant Lilrs  aoain  rushed  forward,  and  were  a^j-ain  checked 
by  my  interference.  The  same  order  of  events  occurred 
thrice.  Just  as  they  were  quieted  on  the  last  occasion, 
an  outcry  arose  that  the  Arabs  had  seized  and  were  mui- 
dering  a  Lur.  There  was  no  time  to  lose  ; — the  Arabs 
were  again  regaining  courage,  and  preparing  to  advance 
on  seeing  our  halt,  when  I  gave  the  word  for  a  general 
charge  down  the  mound.     The  enemy  declined  close  con- 


392  AN  ARAB  ATTACK  REPELLED. 

tact  with  the  spades,  and  made  a  hasty  retreat  to  the  ford 
over  the  Shaour,  keeping  np  a  running  fight  with  bricks, 
their  stock  of  powder  being  by  this  time  exhausted.  As 
soon  as  tliey  reached  the  river,  the  Liirs  were  brought  to 
a  halt  once  more,  and  I  walked  with  Mr  Jackson  and 
Ovannes  to  the  bank.  On  beckoning  the  sheikh  to 
speak  with  me,  he  menacingly  shook  his  stick,  and,  as 
no  exj)ostulation  had  any  effect  in  producing  an  explana- 
tion, I  told  him  he  must  take  the  consequences  of  this 
unjustifiable  assault  on  his  own  shoulders;  then  turning 
away,  I  retired  unmolested  by  the  Arabs,  many  of 
whom  were  performing  a  species  of  demoniacal  dance 
around  me.  A  messenger  was  soon  on  his  way  with  an 
account  of  the  whole  proceedings  to  Colonel  Williams. 
The  only  explanation  to  be  ofiered  as  to  the  sheikh's 
conduct  is,  that  not  aware  of  the  Commissioner's  depar- 
tiu'e,  he  had  come  with  the  intention  of  insulting  him  for 
charging  the  Cha  b  tribe  with  the  theft  of  the  horses. 
If  his  visit  were  intended  as  a  mark  of  respect,  he  would 
have  kept  his  people  out  of  my  camp. 

The  Prince  was  highly  enraged  on  hearing  from  Colonel 
Williams  the  account  of  the  attack,  and  instantly  com- 
manded Sheikh  Ghafil  to  secm^e  and  send  his  subordi- 
nate to  Dizfiil — a  task  easier  said  than  done -^- for, 
within  twenty  hours  after  the  occurrence,  Abdullah  and 
the  Cha'b  were  on  their  way  to  seek  refuge  among  the 
marshes  of  the  Kerkhah  beyond  Hawiza.  The  plains, 
which  the  day  before  were  thickly  dotted  with  black 
tents  and  herds  of  buffaloes,  were  now  deserted, — not  an 
Arab  was  visible, — nothing  but  an  expanse  of  verdant 
meadow  of  the  richest  green  was  apparent  as  far  as  the 
eye  could  span.  Ghafil  was  now  in  a  dilemma  ;  in 
accordance  with  Persian  custom,  he  was  answerable  for 
the  conduct  of  the  whole  'All  Kethir,  and  bound  to 
produce  Abdullah.     He  being,  however,  beyond  reach. 


THE  HAUGHTY  MADE  HUMBLE.         393 

his  relatives  were  instantly  seized  and  lodged  in 
prison. 

Ghafil  and  a  party  of  sheikhs  soon  honoured  me  with  a 
visit,  but  their  previously  haughty  and  threatening  mien 
was  lowered :  the  men,  who  had  before  drawn  their 
swords  and  insulted  the  Ghyawr,  were  now  anxious  to 
shew  their  deference ;  each,  as  he  entered  the  tent, 
bowed  his  head  low,  and  insisted  on  kissing  the  hand  of 
the  previously  despised  infidel.  Many  were  the  excuses 
and  entreaties  offered  on  behalf  of  the  culprit;  but 
nothing  would  move  my  compassion,  because  T  con- 
ceived it  a  duty  to  future  travellers  that  the  matter 
should  not  be  lightly  passed  over.  Unless  the  Arabs 
were  now  made  to  respect  the  European,  it  might  fare  ill 
with  the  next  visitor  to  the  ruins.  At  my  intercession, 
however,  the  relations  of  Sheikh  Abdidlah  were  released 
from  prison,  it  being  manifestly  unfair  that  the  innocent 
should  be  punished  for  the  guilty. 

Not  succeeding  in  his  entreaties,  Sheikh  Ghafil  took  a 
sorrowful  leave,  declaring  that  he  would  shortly  return 
with  his  hdrem,  under  the  impression  that  woman's 
prayers  would  prevail  over  my  stubborn  resolution. 
He  kept  his  word.  In  a  few  hours,  I  was  siu-prised  at 
seeing  a  long  line  of  females  approaching  in  single  file 
towards  my  tent,  headed  by  the  sheikh  himself  and  a 
black  eunuch.  The  ladies  were  all  richly  dressed,  their 
faces  scrupulously  concealed  under  black  horsehair  masks. 
But  I  at  once  declined  to  receive  them,  and  threatened  to 
quit  my  tent  if  they  persisted  in  approacliing.  Finding 
me  so  determined,  they  halted,  but  Ghafil  now  declared 
they  should  not  depart  until  I  yielded.  This  was 
attempting  to  storm  the  fortress  in  a  way  not  calculated 
upon ;  but,  being  resolved  to  stand  the  siege,  I  ordered  a 
tent  to  be  pitched  for  the  accommodation  of  the  Amazons, 
and  all  supplies  which  they  might  need  to  be  provided 


394  BESIEGED  BY  A  HAREM. 

for  them.  Tlie  black  eunucli  took  up  his  appointed 
station  in  a  broiling  sun,  midway  between  tlie  besiegers 
and  besieged,  and  acted  as  the  advanced  corps  of  ob- 
servation. All  communication  between  the  two  forces 
was  held  through  his  instrumentality ;  messages  and 
presents  alike  passed  through  him  from  camp  to  camp. 

In  the  evening,  Sheikh  Ghafil,  without  a  word,  took 
his  departure,  leaving  his  h^rem  to  continue  a  hopeless 
task;  but  on  the  following  day  he  returned  with  a  pri- 
soner— a  poor  labourer  caught  ploughing  his  fields — 
and  represented  him  as  the  man  who  commenced  the 
attack.  With  his  wretched  \ictim  he  departed  for  Dizfill, 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  this  great  show  of  activity 
and  zeal  woidd  bring  about  the  desired  result  more 
speedily  than  his  besieging  army,  which  was  henceforth 
withdrawn. 

He  was,  however,  still  mistaken;  Sheikh  Abdullah, 
and  no  other,  would  satisfy  my  demand.  Such  being 
the  case,  another  stratagem  was  attempted.  A  Persian, 
representing  himself  as  an  officer  of  the  Prince's,  made 
his  appearance  with  the  offending  sheikh,  pretending  that 
he  was  ordered  to  bring  the  fellow  for  me  to  punish  as  I 
might  please ;  but  the  real  fact  most  probably  was,  that 
he  had  entered  into  a  compact  with  his  prisoner,  hoping  to 
beg  him  off  on  condition  of  a  liberal  reward  for  his  inter- 
cession. Some  such  agreement  evidently  existed,  because, 
on  my  declining  to  listen  to  the  advocate,  they  set  out 
on  the  road  to  Dizfiil ;  it  was  subsequently  stated  that 
AbduUah  had  made  his  escape,  and  that  a  large  body  of 
Cha'b  w^as  in  ambush  by  the  way,  prepared  to  rescue 
their  chief  if  I  had  actively  moved  in  the  matter.  He 
once  more  made  off  into  the  marshes,  and  did  not  again 
trouble  me  during  my  further  stay  ;  Sheikh  Ghafil,  how- 
ever, in  his  own  behalf,  continued  to  importune  me  for 
his  friend's  pardon  whenever  he  paid  me  a  visit. 


methkOk  the  thief.  395 

The  stolen  horses  were  ultimately  traced  to  the  camp 
of  my  worthy  friend  Methkiir,  the  chief  of  the  BenI  Ldm, 
whose  own  brother  proved  to  have  been  the  accomplished 
thief  I  True  to  the  compact  made  with  myself,  my  goods 
and  chattels  were  held  sacred  by  his  tribe;  but,  having 
made  no  stipulation  on  behalf  of  Colonel  Williams,  the 
other  property  of  the  commission  was  regarded  as  a  fair 
object  for  plunder !  The  Prince  wrote  to  Methkiir,  re- 
quiring him  to  deliver  up  the  horses  into  my  charge ; 
while  the  'All  Kethir,  in  whose  territories  they  were  lost, 
were  compelled  to  provide  others  of  equal  value  in 
exchange  !  Thus  was  the  matter  of  the  theft  arranged  ; 
but  the  more  serious  affair  of  the  Cha  b  attack  still 
remained  to  be  dealt  with. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

A  Long  Trench — Enamelled  Bricks — Masons'  Marks — A  Hoard  of 
Coins — ^Was  Susa  destroyed  by  Alexander  1 — Greek  Inscriptions — 
Pythagoras  and  the  Persian  Daric — Unexpected  Visit  from  the 
Guardian  of  the  Tomb— Inscriptious  and  other  Early  Relics  on  the 
Great  Mound — Alabaster  Vases  of  Xerxes — Eg3^tian  Cartouch — 
Mr  Birch's  Remarks  thereon — Sculptured  Trough. 

Excavations  were  now  vigorously  carried  on  in  the 
three  principal  mounds.  In  a  regularly  formed  portion  of 
the  platform  south-west  of  the  colonnade  of  Artaxerxes,  a 
trench"^"  was  dug  diagonally  across  the  mound,  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  At  the  depth  of  eleven  feet,  it  struck 
upon  a  brick  pavement,  evidently  connected  with  the 
palace,  probably  a  court.  On  its  surface  were  numerous 
pieces  of  fallen  walls  built  of  moulded  composition  bricks, 
many  of  which  exhibited  portions  of  glazed,  coloured 
figures  and  designs  in  high  rehef,  but,  being  on  a  large 
scale,  it  was  impossible  to  understand  their  import 
or  to  fit  the  fraoments  to  each  other,  Amono;  some 
smaller  designs  was  frequently  repeated  the  symbol  of 
the  Deity — a  dotted  ball  with  expanded  wings, — the 
colours  being  much  varied  and  in  a  good  state  of  pre- 
servation. There  was  also  the  rosette  ornament,  which 
occurs  so  abundantly  and  was  so  universal  a  favourite 
throughout  edifices  of  the  same  period  at  Nineveh, 
Persepolis,  and  Susa.t     From  the  position  in  which  these 

♦  At  I  on  the  Plan. 

t  Specimens  of  these  enamelled  bricks  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


masons'  marks.  307 

glazed  bricks  lay,  it  would  appear  that  the  wings  of  the 
great  palace  at  Siisa  were  ornamented  externally  in  this 
style,  and  hence  we  may  attach  some  credit  to  the  state- 
ments of  the  ancient  historians  ^'  that  the  walls  of 
edifices  in  Babylon  and  Ecbatana  in  Media  were  adorned 
with  gorgeously-coloured  representations  of  various  siib- 
jects.  The  shallowness  of  the  trench,  and  the  overturned 
condition  of  the  brickwork,  induced  me  to  cease  minute 
researches  at  the  north  side  of  the  mound. 

There  is  another  point  connected  with  these  enamelled 
bricks  of  some  interest.  Upon  their  upper  sur- 
face is  generally  one,  and  sometimes  two  or  three 
peculiar  characters.  They  are  of  different  kinds,  as 
shewn  in  the  accompanying  list.  Those  in  the  lines, 
No.  1,  were  merely  scratches  made  with  a  knife  or  sharp 
instrument  while  the  composition  was  soft.  The  second 
series  of  marks  is  the  most  interesting.  They  are  small, 
but  very  carefully  formed,  near  the  front  edge  of  each 
brick,  generally  with  dark-coloured  enamel,  and  are 
apparently  intended  to  indicate  the  upper  side  of  the 
design  in  front.  The  marks  in  the  columns,  No.  3,  weic 
rudely  laid  on  in  glaze  with  a  brush  or  stick.  As  they 
do  not  belong  to  any  known  language,  the  inference  is 
that  these  characters  are  merely  builders'  marks,  t 

*  Diodorus  Siculus,lib.  ii.,  c.  20.  Herodotus,  lib.  i.,  c.  98.  The  large  num- 
ber of  enamelled  bricks  discovered  in  Mr  Layard's  excavations  at  the  Kasr 
mound,  Babylon,  led  him  to  the  same  conclusion  at  that  locality.  In 
Assyria,  glazed  bricks  are  an  important  feature  in  the  front  of  the  city 
gateways  still  standing  at  Khorsdbdd,  but  it  is  to  be  doubted  if  the  ex- 
ternal walls  of  Assyrian  palaces  were  adorned  in  the  same  manner  through- 
out. They  may  have  been  painted  but  not  enamelled.  I  laid  bare  three 
sides  of  the  north  palace  at  Koyunjuk,  but  without  observing  any  trace 
of  colour  upon  them. 

t  Marks  of  similar  kind  occur  upon  many  ancient  stone  buildings  in  the 
East — as  at  Takht  i  Suleyman,  near  Persepolis ;  at  the  base  of  the  sculptured 
rock  of  Bisutlin  ;  in  blocks  near  the  Zendertid  and  in  the  garden  of  the  Che- 
hil  Sitfm  ;  at  Isfahan  ;  and  especially  on  the  walls  of  Al  Hddhr,  near  Mosul. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  those  observed  at  the  Chebil  Sittin  were  de- 


398 


MASONS    MARKS. 


With  regard  to  others  of  similar  kind  elsewhere,  it  has 
been  suggested  that  they  are  the  marks  of  Chaldsean 


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Marks  on  composition  bricks  at  Sus;x. 

masons.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  curious  to  find  them 
existing  on  edifices  far  apart,  and  erected  at  various 
periods  from  335  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  With  the  above  observations,  I  leave 
them  to  the  examination  of  philologists. 

rived  from  more  ancient  structures  erected  by  Ardeshlr  Babegdn  about 
2-'^0  A  D. 


A  HOARD  OF  COINS.  399 

The  frequency  of  these  bricks,  and  the  occurrence,  from 
time  to  time,  of  a  piece  of  inscribed  plaster,  or  small 
column  base  with  trilingual  characters,  induced  me  to 
continue  this  trench '""  five  hundred  feet  to  the  opposite 
side  of  the  mound.  Not  far  from  its  southern  extremity, 
on  the  edge  of  the  platform,  where  the  depth  of  earth 
above  the  pavement  did  not  exceed  six  feet,  an  interest- 
ing discovery  was  made.  I  was  at  the  time  engaged  in 
examining  some  recent  acquisitions  from  another  part 
of  the  ruins,  when  one  of  my  master  workmen  rushed 
into  the  tent,  every  muscle  of  his  face  distorted  with 
mingled  expressions  of  astonishment,  delight,  fear,  and 
anxiety,  while  he  threw  down  at  my  feet  as  many  silver 
Kufic  coins  as  his  two  hands  could  contain,  rushing  out 
again  with  an  intimation  that  there  were  more,  in  the 
trench,  which  he  could  not  carry. 

The  workmen  had  come  upon  a  small  glazed  pot  dur- 
ing the  temporary  absence  of  their  overseer.  As  it  felt 
extremely  heavy,  the  cupidity  of  the  Persians  tempted 
them  to  break  it,  when  out  rolled  the  coins  and  a  gene- 
ral scramble  took  place.  The  master-workman,  however, 
being  responsible  for  the  rest,  seciu*ed  as  many  as  he 
could,  and  honestly  delivered  them  up  to  me.  He  was 
delighted  at  the  discovery,  but  afraid  of  the  result, 
doubting  whether  the  Prince  ought  not  to  receive  the 
treasure,  and  at  the  same  time  aware  that  his  men  had 
taken  care  of  themselves.  Ovannes  was  immediately 
eent  to  look  after  them,  and  presently  returned  with 
fifty  more  coins,  laughing  at  the  credulity  of  the  Liirs. 
With  ready  wit,  he  hinted  that  I  had  found  an  account 
of  the  number,  and  that  several  were  missing.  He  there- 
fore recommended  the  men  to  produce  them,  because,  if 
sold  in  Dizful,  the  fact  would  reach  the  Prince's  ears, 
and  the  sellers  be  punished.     They  looked  at  each  other. 

•  At  I  on  the  Plan.  * 


400  kOfic  coins. 

At  length,  one  more  timid  than  the  rest  pulled  forth  a 
coin,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  all.  Some  handed 
out  one,  some  two  or  three,  and  so  on,  until  fifty  were 
collected.  Still  my  factotum  was  not  satisfied ;  when  the 
day's  work  was  over,  he  obliged  each  man  to  declare  by 
the  head  of  'All,  by  Baba  Buzurg,-"^  and  all  his  favourite 
saints,  that  he  had  no  more  coins  in  his  possession. 
Those  who  refused  the  oath  were  to  receive  none  of  the 
tobacco  about  to  be  distributed  in  honour  of  the  dis- 
covery. In  this  manner  eleven  other  coins  were  re- 
covered that  evening,  and,  by  dint  of  perseverance, 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy  were  in  all  collected. 
Several  were  cohering  together  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar 
in  a  hard,  solid  mass,  but  the  greater  number  were 
bright  and  unworn,  as  though  but  recently  struck  off 
the  die.  They  proved  to  belong  to  the  Ommiad  Khalifs, 
who  date  from  Abdal-Malek  79  a.h.  to  Hesham  106  a.h., 
corresponding  with  the  years  a.d.  698-728.t 

*  Bdbd  Btiztlrg  (great  father)  is  a  celebrated  saint  of  the  'AH  Ildhl  calendar. 
The  shrine  of  this  deity  is  situated  in  the  mountainous  region  between  Diz- 
ftil  and  Khorremdbdd,  in  Ltiristdn. 

t  I  am  indebted  to  Mr  Vaux,  of  the  British  Museum,  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  mint-marks  and  dates  of  these  coins  contained  in  the  follo^fting 
list:— 

Damascus,  A.a   79,  82,  83,  84,  86—100,  105-6. 

Busrah,  „      80-82,  87. 

Wdset,  „      88,  94,  99,  105,  108. 

Sfis  (Susa),  „      90. 

Key,  „      90. 

Herdt,  „      90. 

Teimdr,  ,,      91. 

Shdptir  „      91,  92, 94 

Istdkhr  (Persepolis),      „      91. 

Sedjestdn,  „      92. 

Darabjerd,  ^      92,  97. 

Chey  or  Dschey,  „      92,  94. 

Merv,  „      93. 

Kermdn,  „      95. 

Ktifa  „    101. 

MdhI,  „    -?6. 

These  coins  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.     It  is  interesting  to  OD- 


DID  ALEXANDER  DESTROY  SUSA '^  401 

From  the  sliai"2:)ness  of  the  impression  on  these  coins,  I 
conclude  that  the  hoard  was  buried  soon  after  the  latest 
date.  But,  besides  the  value  attached  to  them  from  yield- 
ing several  new  types,  they  are  extremely  interesting  in 
another  point  of  view — they  afford  a  criterion  by  which 
to  determine  the  date  of  the  destruction  of  the  Susian 
palaces  in  an  approximate  manner.  The  accumulation  of 
soil  between  them  and  the  pavement,  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  they  were  hidden  long  after  that  event.  This 
fact,  coupled  with  the  discovery  of  several  Arsacidan  and 
Sassanian  urns  around  the  bases  of  the  fallen  columns, 
leads  to  the  probability  that  this  barbarous  act  of  demoli- 
tion was  due  either  to  Alexander  the  Great  himself,  or 
to  his  successors  in  the  Greek  occupation  of  Susiana. 
Although  no  such  exploit  at  this  place  is  recorded  of  the 
great  conqueror  by  his  historians,  they  do  not  fail  to  tell 
us  of  his  wantonly  setting  fire  to  the  palace  at  Persepolis  ; 
it  would,  therefore,  be  no  great  stretch  of  the  imagination 
to  suppose  that  he  acted  similarly  at  Susa.""' 

In  evidence  of  Greek  influence  at  Susa,  I  may  refer  to 
the  discoveries  made  at  the  extreme  south  corner  of  the 
great  platform,  which  is,  as  previously  mentioned,  sepa- 
rated from  the  palace  mound  by  an  apparent  roadway, 
and  from  the  great  citadel  by  a  deep  ditch  or  ravine. 
At  this  point,!  which  projects  considerably  beyond  the 
rest  of  the  mound,  there  once  stood  another  columnar 
edifice  in  a  similar  style  of  ornamentation  to  that  already 
described.    It  had,  however,  been  entirely  destroyed,  and 

serve,  in  lunning  the  eye  down  the  line  of  names,  that,  with  exception  of 
the  last  two,  they  correspond  with  the  order  of  Mohammedan  conquest. 

*  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  columns  of  Persepolis  are  free  from  all 
traces  of  fire.  The  whitened  aspect  which  many  of  them  exhibit,  is  not  the 
effect  of  fire,  but  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  proceed- 
ings supposed  to  have  occurred  at  Pei-sepolis,  really  took  place  at  Susa,  and 
that  the  destruction  visible  at  the  latter  site  is  attributable  to  the  "  con- 
queror of  the  world." 

t  At  L  on  the  Plan. 


402  SMALL  PALACE  TO  ARTAXERXES  MNEMON. 

its  fragments  were  used  for  the  pavement  of  other  edifices 
by  the  after-races  who  secured  possession  of  the  site. 
Among  these  were  fluted  shafts,  bases  of  small  columns, 
panels  and  cornices  of  marble  adorned  with  the  favourite 
rosette.  The  later  edifice  was  equally  destroyed,  only 
eight  feet  of  earth  remaining  above  the  rudely  constructed 
pavement.  Here  and  there  were  dug  up  column  bases. 
miniature  copies  of  the  large  bell-shaped  monoliths  in  the 
great  palace,  elegantly,  but,  of  course,  not  so  highly  sculp- 
tured. Immediately  below  the  torus,  around  the  swell  of 
the  bell,  upon  one  of  these'''  ran  the  triling-ual  inscrip- 
tion : — 

"  I  am  Artaxerxes,  the  Great  King,  the  King  of  Kings,  of  King 
Darius  the  Son." 

This,  doubtless,  refers  to  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  who 
would  thus  appear  to  have  been  a  great  builder  and 
renovator  of  palaces  at  Susa. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  definite  conclusion  con- 
cerning the  date  at  which  this  edifice  was  destroyed, 
although  one  naturally  associates  its  downfall  with  that 
of  the  larger  palace.  The  interesting  record,  to  which 
allusion  will  now  be  made,  serves  only  to  add  to  the 
difficulty. 

About  240  feet  south-westward  t  of  the  above  column, 
a  slight  conical  elevation,  close  to  the  edge  of  the  mound, 
induced  me  to  open  a  trench  into  it.  After  passing 
through  some  comparatively  modern  Arab  graves,  the 
workmen,  at  the  depth  of  ten  feet,  discovered  the  base 
of  another  smaU  column,  perfectly  dijfferent  in  character 
from  the  others.  Its  measurements  were  as  follow  : — 
Pedestal,  seven  inches  high,  and  three  feet  nine  inches 
square ;  plinth,  of  the  same  height,  and  two  feet  nine 

*  The  following  are  the  measurements  of  this  monoHth  : — phnth,  2  inches  ; 
bell,  1  foot  3  inches  ;  torus,  4^  inches  ;  cincture,  1  j  inch ;  total  height,  1 
foot  103  inches  ;  circumference  of  plinth,  8  feet. 

t  At  M  on  the  Plan. 


GREEK  INSCRIPTIONS. 


403 


inches  square;  and  torus,  five  inches  high,  by  two  feet 
live  inches  in  circumference.     On  the  north  side  was  the 


Base  of  column  with  Greek  inscription. 


following  Greek  inscription,  cut  in  letters  two-thirds  of 
an  inch  in  length  upon  the  pedestal : — 


NoVI<l>AolJLY3  NoJ-^H  N  VI^  A  o^^  HX 
NoJH-LVdi.^NoXAoViaN3clciV 

NHvIBNaadY  h:yya4>oXYWU  ^ 
AoXdY±$lclV5YJoJY©ALf 


which  may  be  rendered  : — 

"  Pythagoras,  the  son  of  Aristarchus,  captain  of   the  body-guard   (in 
honour  of)  his  friend  Arreneides,  son  of  Arreneides,  Governor  of  Susiana." 

The  most  curious  feature  connected  with  this  epitaph 
is,  that  it  stands  upside  down  at  the  left  comer,  each  line 
extending  to  within  two  inches  of  a  fracture  which 
divides  the  pedestal  into  two  equal  parts :  hence,  it 
would  appear  that  each  line  was  framed  to  occupy  the 
space  where  it  was  inscribed.  The  column  must  have 
stood  in  its  present  situation  when  the  epitaph  was  cut, 
because  the  position  of  the  letters  at  the  left  corner  of 
the  stone  was  such  that  they  could  only  have  been  con- 
veniently efiTected  by  the  sculptor  kneeling  on  his  right 
knee.     Moreover,  the  aspect  of  the  block,  and  the  polished 


404  PYTHAGORAS  AND  THE  DARIC. 

state  of  its  broken  edges,  bear  evidence  of  great  antiquity, 
comjjared  with  the  sharp  and  unworn  appearance  of  the 
Greek  letters.  Standing,  as  it  doubtless  did,  protected 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  inside  of  a 
colonnade,  its  position  was  well  chosen.  That  such  was 
its  site,  we  have  the  evidence  of  another  column  base  of 
coarse  yellow  limestone,  fifteen  feet  further  north,  which 
had  inscribed  upon  it,  likewise  inverted,  and  on  the  north 
side,  the  following  unfinished  but  rudely-cut  Greek 
inscription : — 

TilNENToiinr 

Southward  of  the  first  base  were  two  others,  both  bell- 
shaped,  one  being  perfectly  plain,  the  other  ornamented 
similarly  to  that  bearing  the  Artaxerxes  inscription. 

It  was  at  once  evident,  from  the  dissimilar  styles  of  these 
columns,  that  they  were  removed  from  other  edifices. 
They  were,  moreover,  built  upon  fragments  of  another 
palace  which  once  stood  upon  the  same  site. 

The  first  inference  derived  from  these  inscriptions,  and 
the  knowledge  of  Susa  having  been  in  the  possession  of 
the  Greeks,  is  that  they  were,  as  I  have  just  said,  the 
cause  of  all  this  havoc  among  the  Persian  palaces.  We 
have  certainly  no  positive  evidence  to  establish  the  fact, 
but  it  is  highly  probable  that  both  Arreneides,  and  his 
faithful  friend  Pythagoras,  were  generals  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

Opposed  to  this  view,  however,  are  several  specimens 
extant  of  a  Persian  coin  known  as  the  "  Daric,"  which 
exhibits  on  the  obverse  a  peculiarly  Persian  representa- 
tion of  a  crowned  king,  in  flowing  drapery,  kneeling  on 
one  knee,  holding  a  bent  bow  in  his  left  hand,  and 
a  long  spear  in  his  right,  and  around  him  the  name 
IITQATOPH.  The  reverse  of  this  coin  is  perfectly  unin- 
telligible.    Mr  Vaux  suggests  that  this  name  refers  to  the 


BODIES  BAKED  IN  JARS.  405 

Pythagoras  of  the  Susa  column,  whom  he  supposes  to 
have  lived  during  the  sway  of  the  Achyemenian  kings. 
"  As  a  commander  of  Persian  troops,  he  would  naturally 
make  use  of  the  usual  Persian  coin,  the  daric  ;  and  as 
leader  of  Greek  troops  under  Persian  rule,  he  would 
probably  be  allowed  to  place  his  name  upon  the  Persian 
coins  which  were  struck  chiefly  for  his  own  troops." '"'  It 
appears,  however,  extremely  improbable  to  me  that  any 
Persian  monarch  would  permit  "  the  captain  of  his  body- 
guard "  to  assume  such  a  privilege. 

The  only  other  supposition  which  1  can  offer  is,  that 
Arreneides  was  governor  of  Susiana  under  some  of  the 
Seleucid  successors  of  Alexander,  and  that  Pythagoras, 
succeedino;  him,  had  a  die  struck  bv  a  Persian  artist  in 
which  his  rank,  as  local  prince,  was  indicated  by  the 
bended  knee,  and  simple  name  without  the  usual  affix, 
"Kino;"  or  "Great  Kinp;." 

But  whoever  the  Pythagoras  of  the  column  base  may 
have  been,  the  inscription  with  the  name  of  Susiana  upon 
it  is  quite  sufficient  to  decide  the  question  as  to  the  iden- 
tity of  Shush  with  the  Susa  of  the  Greeks. 

In  the  immediate  neio'hbourhood  of  the  above  discoveries 
were  found  t  a  few  copper  coins,  of  Sub-Parthian  type, 
and  small  fragments  of  alabaster  statuettes,  apparently 
of  Greek  design.  Other  trenches  in  the  great  platform 
yielded  a  small  collection  of  glass  articles,  clay  vases,  and 
rude  coffins  of  Parthian  or  Sassanian  origin.  Among  the 
latter  were  several  cylindrical  jars,  three  or  four  feet  in 
length,  containing  the  bodies  of  children  ;  but  as  the 
cranium  was  generally  larger  than  the  neck  of  the  vase, 
it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  it  could  have  been  placed 
inside.  The  most  feasible  explanation  is,  that  the  jar 
was  moulded  round  the  skeleton,  and  then  baked  with 

•  "  NuTiiismatic  Chronicle,"  vol.  xviii.,  page  148,  and  figure  10. 
t  At  N  on  Plan. 


406  THE  MtJTAVELfS  OFFER. 

the  body  inside, — numerous  small  holes  being  apparently 
made  for  the  escape  of  the  gases  generated  during  the 
process ! 

About  ten  days  after  the  commencement  of  the  exca- 
vations, I  was  surprised  at  receiving  a  visit  from  the 
venerable  mutaveli  or  guardian  of  Daniel's  tomb,  who 
voluntarily  came  to  pay  his  respects.  This  condescension 
took  me  completely  by  surprise,  because  his  sacred  cha- 
racter, and  my  own  infidelity,  appeared  to  be  insuperable 
bars  to  our  good  fellowship  ;  it  was,  moreover,  the  first 
time  I  had  been  honoured  with  a  friendly  visit  from  a 
native.  He  was  a  handsome  old  man,  with  sharp  twink- 
ling eyes  and  pleasing  expression  of  countenance  ;  but 
he  wore  the  green  turban,  that  badge  of  fanaticism  and 
my  express  aversion.  Having  certain  plans  in  view,  I 
was,  however,  really  pleased  to  see  the  old  gentleman, 
and  therefore  plied  him  with  strong  Arab  coffee  and  pipes 
without  number.  This  treatment  evidently  warmed  the 
inmost  recesses  of  his  heart,  for  he  suddenly  exclaimed,  in 
the  midst  of  our  conversation :  "  You  are  spending  a  great 
sum  of  money  to  no  purpose,  Sahib,  digging  in  this  mound, 
where  you  will  turn  up  nothing  but  stumps  of  columns 
and  broken  bricks.  Come  with  me  and  I  will  shew  you 
where  to  find  maktub  (inscriptions)  !"  This  was  too 
good  an  ofier  to  be  declined.  Nearly  all  his  life  had  been 
spent  upon  the  ruins,  consequently  he  knew  more  about 
them  than  any  one  living.  Conceiving,  therefore,  that  a 
few  coins,  bestowed  upon  him  in  bakhshish,  would  be 
infinitely  better  invested  than  in  expending  my  funds  at 
random,  I  promised  that  if  he  could  shew  me  where  to 
find  a  series  of  sculptures  and  inscriptions,  the  palm  of 
his  hand  should  be  well  anointed  in  return  for  his 
information. 

Taking  me  to  the  summit  of  the  Great  Mound,  he 
pointed  out  a  spot  at  the  north  angle  where  he  assured 


KING  SUSRA'S  RECORD.  407 

me  was  a  large  stone  or  stones  bearing  written  characters, 
and  but  slightly  covered  with  earth.  As  he  spoke  confi- 
dently on  the  subject,  and  as  the  record  of  King  Susra"^''  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  mound  positively  attests  the 
existence  of  sculptured  slabs,  I  saw  no  reason  to  doubt 
my  informant's  honesty  of  purpose.  A  trench  was  there- 
fore immediately  opened  at  the  point  indicated.! 

We  then  adjourned  to  the  head  of  Colonel  Williams' 
trench  I  over  King  Susra's  inscription.  Here  my  guide 
told  me  that,  when  he  was  quite  a  boy,  this  and  another 
slab  stood  at  the  edge  of  the  mound,  with  their  to2:)S  about 
three  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surface.  Out  of  curiosity 
he  dug  away  the  earth,  and  found  them  standing  alone, 
erect  like  door-posts.  The  block,  now  lying  at  the  foot  of 
the  mound,  was  then  in  the  same  broken  condition.  He 
stated  that  the  natives  have  a  tradition,  that  a  great 
stone  palace  once  existed  at  the  south  side  of  the  mound, 
and  strongly  recommended  me  to  continue  the  excava- 
tions then  proceeding  at  that  part.  He  also  shewed  me 
a  place,  half-way  up  the  north  roadway,  where  he  once 
discovered  a  number  of  variously-sized  copper  figures, 
which,  not  knowing  their  value,  he  sold  for  a  few  kerans, 
to  be  melted  down  in  the  bazaar !  In  this  manner  dis- 
appear many  valuable  and  interesting  antiquities. 

To  a  certain  extent,  the  information  of  my  newly- 
acquired  friend  proved  correct.  Early  on  the  following 
morning,  I  was  called  to  the  trench  §  at  the  top  of  the 
roadway.  A  wall  of  ancient  bricks  liad  been  reached, 
many  of  which  bore,  on  their  edges,  long  and  complicated 
inscriptions  of  five  or  six  lines.  They  resembled  one 
built  into  the  doorway  of  Daniel's  tomb,  and  fragments  of 
others  which  were  now  and  then  dug  up  in  the  trenches 
at  difierent  parts  of  the  ruins.     These  were,  however,  the 

*  Already  mentioned  at  page  344.  f  At  D  on  tlie  Plan. 

t  At  A  ou  the  Plan.  §  At  D  on  the  Plan. 


408  RELICS  FROM  THE  GREAT  MOUND. 

only  perfect  specimens  hitherto  discovered,  and  the  only 
undoubted  relics  of  an  age  preceding  that  of  the  Achse- 
menian  kings,  to  whom  were  referable  all  the  remains 
hitherto  exhumed.  In  digging  away  the  earth  towards 
a  point  where  I  conceived  there  must  have  been  a  gate- 
way or  grand  entrance,  there  was  found  a  broken  slab  of 
blue  limestone,  with  a  much-defaced  and  weathered 
inscription,  written  in  a  language  which  M.  Oppert* 
terms  "  late  Susanian."  It  differed  considerably  in 
character  from  that  upon  the  earlier  bricks.  Lying  near 
it  was  a  fragment  of  a  stone  gate-post ;  a  broken,  rude 
sculpture  of  a  bird's  neck  ;  and  a  piece  of  polished  basalt, 
which  apparently  belonged  to  a  statue,  and  shewed  traces 
of  cuneiform. 

All  these  fragmentary  relics  lay  as  if  thrown  down 
with  violence  from  a  greater  elevation  on  the  north. 
Close  at  hand,  too,  was  a  broken  mortar-shaped  vessel, 
perhaps  a  fire-altar,  containing  a  quantity  of  burnt  bitu- 
men, with  the  impressions  of  a  sheep's  teeth  and  jaw. 

From  the  point  where  the  debris  occmTed,  the  founda- 
tion wall,  above  mentioned,  extended  westward  across 
the  mound,  containing  in  its  lowest  layers  several  in- 
scribed bricks ;  but  it  was  evident  from  their  inscribed 
surfaces  being  built  inwards,  and  from  the  use  of  coarse 
lime  mortar,  that  they  were  derived  from  some  more 
ancient  structm^e.  At  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  to  the 
north  of  this  wall  stood  a  well-built  circular  column  or 
pillar  of  bricks,  measuring  three  feet  in  diameter  upon  a 
broad  base.  On  a  level  with  the  latter,  parallel  w4th 
the  upper  wall,  was  an  undoubtedly  more  ancient  foun- 
dation, to  the  base  of  which  my  trench  was  carried. 
Upon  its  surface,  seventeen  feet  removed  from  the  pillar, 
was  a  piece   of  red-sandstone  slab,  with   a    beautifully 

*  The  learned  savant  engaged  under  the  auspices  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  the  interpretation  of  the  cuneiform  records. 


ALABASTER  VASES  OF  XERXES.  409 

cut  and  complicated  old  Scytliic  record.  It  lay  flat 
upon  another  of  polished  limestone,  both  of  them  ex- 
hibiting undoubted  marks  of  fire,  as  did  likewise  the 
debris  around  them. 

Lying  upon  or  near  the  slabs  were  several  small 
ai'ticles ; — a  small  ivory  crux  ansata  two  inches  in 
length ;  a  bundle  of  iron  spear-heads  adhering  together 
with  rust ;  two  or  three  flat  copper  ornaments  resem- 
bhng  those  seen  in  Assyrian  scidptures  upon  horses'  trap- 
pings ;  a  rude  cubic  die ;  and  a  mushroom -formed  clay 
object,  the  top  perforated,  and  the  shaft  covered  with 
complex  Babylonian  characters. 

But  decidedly  the  most  interesting  objects  obtained 
at  this  locality  were  a  collection  of  broken  alabaster 
vases,  some  of  which  must  have  been  of  large  dimen- 
sions. A  pile  of  these,  suflicient  to  have  filled  a  wheel- 
barrow, were  gathered  together,  and  I  spent  several 
hours  in  examining  them  separately.  From  among 
them,  I  selected  four  bearing  trilingual  inscriptions, 
which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  largest  of 
these  fragments,  six  and  a  half  inches  in  height,  is  the 
mouth  and  upper  part  of  a  vase.  The  alabaster  has  split 
nearly  in  a  straight  line,  following  the  grain  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  divided  the  inscriptions.  The  commence- 
ment and  most  important  portions  of  these,  however, 
remain — the  whole  of  the  royal  name,  "  Xerxes,"  except- 
ing only  the  terminal  letter  in  each  version.  A  second 
frao-ment  exhibits  the  last  letters  of  the  same  name,  with 
the  commencement  of  the  word  "king ;"  and  on  a  third 
is  the  word  "  great."  There  can  be  httle  doubt,  therefore, 
that  the  complete  inscription  ran  as  usual : — 

'*  Xerxes,  the  great  king." 

Beneath  the  inscriptions  on  the  largest  fragment  is  a 
vertical  line  close  to  the  edge  of  the  fracture,  which  I 


410  CAPtTOUCH  OF  XERXES. 

believe  to  have  formed  part  of  the  border  around  an 
Egyptian  cartouch  of  the  same  king.  My  reason  for  so 
thinking  is,  that  a  similar  combination  of  cuneatic  and 
hieroglyphic  legends  occurs  upon  the  celebrated  porphyry 
vase  ascribed  to  Artaxerxes  Ochus  at  Venice  ;  and,  more- 
over, because  among  the  other  fragments  found  was  a 
cartouch  bearing  the  name  of  Xerxes. 

I  am  favoured  by  Mr  Birch,  of  the  British  Museum, 
with  the  following  highly  interesting  remarks  on  these 
and  other  alabaster  vases  of  the  same  period  : — 

"  The  discoveries  of  Mr  Loftus  at  Susa,  like  those  of 
Mr  Layard  at  Nimriid,  have  brought  to  light  some 
Egyptian  fragments,  of  considerable  interest  for  the 
history  of  the  Persian  dominion  in  Egypt.  He  has 
discovered  fragments  of  those  alabaster  vases  which, 
like  that  of  Paris  and  its  companion  in  the  treasury  of 
St  Marc  at  Venice,  once  ornamented  the  palace  of  the 
Persian  monarch.  These  vases  are  all  of  arragonite,  or 
the  so-called  Oriental  alabaster,  which,  fashioned  into 
vessels  of  elegant  shape,  was  in  use  for  unguents,  cosme- 
tics, and  other  precious  substances,  as  early  as  the  fourth 
dynasty,  and  continued  so  tiU  the  age  of  the  Persian 
rulers.  But  there  is  one  remarkable  distinction  as  to  the 
quality  of  the  material.  The  vases  of  the  early  epoch  are 
made  of  fine  semi-transparent  alabaster,  of  uniform  grain 
and  colour,  while  those  of  the  later  period  are  of  the  kind 
called  zoned,  showing  the  successive  accretions  of  the 
stalagmite  of  wliich  they  were  composed.  The  quarry  of 
this  kind  of  alabaster  seenis  to  have  been  opened  during 
the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  about  750  B.C.,  and  the  age  of 
vases  and  other  vessels  made  of  it  can  consequently  be 
determined.  It  comes  from  Tel-el-' Amarna,  and  is  the  ala- 
baster now  in  use.  The  columns  sent  by  Mehemet  'Ali  to 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  and  erected  in  the  church  of  St  Paolo 
Fuore  le  Mura  at  Kome,  are  from  this  later  quarry.     This 


HIEROGLYPHIC  RECORDS  OF  THE  PERSIANS  IN  EGYPT.    411 

alabaster  is  probably  the  kind  called  by  Theopbrastus 
(De  Lapid.,  c.  xii.)  cheriiites,  and  by  subsequent  writers 
cher mites;  Pliny  (N.  H.,  xxxvii.  11,  71-73)  described  it 
as  resembUng  ivory.  It  was  in  a  sarcophagus  of  this 
material  that  Darius  was  buried. 

"  The  name  in  hieroglyphics  upon  the  vase  reads  Kha- 
shairsha,  and  is  the  same  as  that  upon  the  vase  at  Paris. 
It  refers  to  Xerxes  L,  and  shews  that  the  vase  in  ques- 
tion had  been  made  in  Egypt,  and  transported  thence 
to  Persia,  where  it  had  received  the  additional  Persian, 
Median,  and  Babylonian  inscriptions,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  bronze  lion-shaped  weights  at  Nimrud  had  Phoe- 
nician and  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

"  The  records  of  the  Persian  rule  are  so  scarce  in  Egypt, 
that  a  short  note  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
may  not  be  unacceptable.  The  principal  one  is  un- 
doubtedly that  of  the  officer  Utaharsun,'"''  whose  statue 
is  in  the  Vatican,  and  which  mentions  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  Cambyses,  and  its  subsequent  sub- 
jection to  Darius.  But  the  most  numerous  memorials  of 
this  period  are  those  of  the  Cosseyr  Koad,  where  a  series 
of  proscynemata  have  been  engraved  to  the  local  divinity 
Khem,  lord  of  Kabti  or  Coptos,  by  two  Persian  and  one 
Egyptian  officer.  The  first  of  these  is  one  of  Atauhi,  or 
Adeues,  a  saris  of  Persia,  who  inscribes  the  sixth  year  of 
Cambyses  the  thirty-sixth  of  Darius  and  the  twelfth  of 
Xerxes,  in  which  last  year  he  hadt  made  the  inscription. 
As  these  two  first  reigns  correspond  with  the  length  as- 
signed to  them  in  Manetho,  it  has  been  generally  supposed 
that  they  were  inscribed  to  record  that  fact,  rather  than  the 
circumstance  of  Atauhi  having  paid  '  his  vows  in  the  face 
of  the  God  Khem'  in  these  years.     In  subsequent  in- 

•  M.  De  Rouge,  statue  naophore  du  Vatican,  Rev.  Arch.,  viii.,  p.  37. 
t  Burton,  Exc.  Hier.,  PI.  viii.  1 ;  Rosellini,  Mon.  Stor.  Pte.  i.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  163, 
and  foil.;  Lepsiu.s,  Denkm.  iii.  Bl.  283. 


412    HIEROGLYPHIC  RECORDS  OF  THE  PERSIANS  IN  EGYPT. 

scriptions  lie  calls  himself  the  son  of  Artames,  and  of  a 
female  named  Kantau  or  Candys.  Previous,  however,  to 
this  year  of  Darius,  an  Egyptian  officer,  who  bears  the 
same  name,  Aahmes,  Amosis,  as  the  last  unhappy  monarch 
of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  an  officer  of  troops,  superin- 
tendent of  constructions,  and  havino-  the  char.oe  of  the 
royal  works  of  the  whole  country,  son  of  Rakhnumhat,  a 
similar  functionary,  and  of  Tsaennefertum,  daughter  of 
one  Psaumetik,  or  Psammetichus,  had  made  excava- 
vatiourf  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  twentieth  year  of  the 
same  monarch."'"  A  wrong  interpretation  of  these  in- 
scriptions had  led  to  much  confusion,  for  it  was  supposed 
that  Darius  had  retained  the  family  of  the  wretched 
Amosis  in  the  government,  in  the  condition  of  dependent 
meleks,  which  the  text  does  not  justify.  The  Amosis  of 
the  Cosseyr  Road  is  undoubtedly  of  the  family  of  the 
Saite  dynasty.  The  principal  inscriptions,  however,  of 
Ataulii  are  of  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  Darius,  whom  he 
callst  '  the  beloved  of  the  god  Khem  dwelling  in  Coptos.' 
In  one  which  bears  the  date  of  this  same  year,  he  gives 
also  the  thirteenth  of  Khisliaii^slia,  or  Xerxes,  whom  he 
calls  the  son  of  Darius,  mentioning  both  monarchs  as  if 
living.  At  this  period  Ataulii  held  the  rank  of  Eepa,  or 
lord-lieutenant  of  Coptos.|  Now  it  is  remarkable  that 
in  other  proscynemata  he  mentions  Xerxes  alone,  as  on  the 
remarkable  inscription  of  the  nineteenth  of  Thoth,  in  the 
second  year  of  Xerxes,§  which  probably  marks  the  reduc- 
tion of  Egypt  again  to  the  Persian  rule  after  its  revolt 
(Herodotus,  vii.  7)  in  484  b.c.||     The  other  proscynemata 

•  Lepsius,  Denkm.,  Ab.  iii.,  Bl.  283,  p.     Cf.  Burton,  Exc.  Hier.,  PI.  iii.  iv. 

t  Lepsius,  Denkiu.,  iii.  283,  p.  J  Lepsius,  Deukm.,  iii.  283,  u. 

§  Lepsius,  Denkm.,  iii.  283,  u. 

II  111  the  lists  of  j\Ianetho,  both  as  given  by  Africanus,  Eusebius,  Syncel- 
lus,  and  the  Armenian  version,  the  reign  of  Darius  is  placed  at  twenty-one 
years.  Cf.  Bunseu's  Egypt's  Place,  vol.  i.  appendix,  p.  642,  643.  After  much 
oscillation  of  opinion,  B.C.  525  is  the  admitted  date  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt. 


HIEROGLYPHIC  RECORDS  OF  THE  PERSIANS  IN  EGYPT.    413 

of  this  officer,  dated  in  the  sixth  and  tenth  and  twelfth 
years  of  Xerxes,  are  less  important,  as  Egypt'-  remained 
in  the  Persian  power  almost  till  the  conquest  of  Alexander. 
But  the  works  in  this  road  continued  only  to  be  carried 
on  in  the  fifth  and  sixteenth  years  of  Artaxerxes  by  Arur- 
resh,t  another  Persian  saris. 

"  With  the  exception  of  the  temple  at  El-Khargeh, 
there  are  no  other  remains  of  the  Persians  in  Egypt, 
the  country  having  been  administered  as  a  great 
satrapy  under  its  local  governments,  and  retaining  its 
privileges.  The  inscription  on  the  cartouch  found  l)y 
Mr  Loftus  reads  Khasliairslia  or  Khsliairsha,  as  on  the 
vase  in  the  Bibliotheque  Imperiale  at  Paris,  and  not 
Khishawsha  like  the  name  upon  the  Cosseyr  Road  ;  but 
this  mimite  difference  does  not  necessarily  prove  that  a 
later  Xerxes  is  intended.  Unfortunately,  there  is  not 
enough  remaining  to  decide  whether  the  inscription  which 
is  found  after  the  name  of  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  on 
these  vases  at  Paris  and  Venice,  occurred  also  on  these 
vases.  This  inscription,  which  means  the  'great  house 
— the  great,'  is  an  interpretation  into  hieroglyphics  of 
the  title  'great  king'  of  the  Persian  inscription  —  the 
first  expression,  '  the  great  house,'  meaning  commander 
of  the  wliole  world,  according  to  the  interpretation  of 
Horapollo."  J 

The  old  miltaveli  was  perfectly  astonished  when  told 
how  much  I  valued  such  fragments.  "  Aman !  Amdn  ! — 
What  a  pity  ! "  he  exclaimed.    "  Only  to  think  what  an  ass 

*  Lepsius,  Denkm.,  283,  k.  ]. 

t  Ibid.,  Bl.  283,  o. 

J  I.  61.  For  these  inscriptions  on  the  Paris  vase,  see  Eosellini,  M.  St.,  Pte.  i., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  176.  ChampoUion,  Precis,  PI.  No.  125-125  a.  Cayhis,  Recueil,  v. 
PI.  XXX.  Lenormant,  Musee  dcs  Antiq.  Egypt.,  fo.  Paris,  1841,  p.  37.  Pauthier, 
Essai  sur  TOrigine  des  Ecritures  Chiuoise  ct  Egyptienne,  8vo,  Paris,  1840, 
p.  111.  Journal  Asiatique,  Fev.,  1823.  M6nioires  de  I'Acad.,  xii.  143.  For 
the  Artaxerxes  vase,  see  Mr  Fettigrcw  in  the  Archoeologia,  vol.  xxx.,  PI.  vi., 
p.  275. 


414  THE  MtJTAVELl's  REGRETS. 

I  was !  A  few  years  ago,  after  a  lieavy  rain,  I  found  a 
large  cup  like  that,  but  tliree  times  its  size.  It  was  quite 
perfect,  and  covered  witli  writing  ;  but,  not  aware  of  its 
value — 'All  forgive  me  ! — I  broke  it  up,  and  made  it  into 
chibiik  bowls  and  mouthpieces.  They  lasted  me  a  long 
time.  And  I  might  perhaps  have  sold  them  for  a 
toman  !  Aman  !  We  grow  wiser  as  Ave  grow  older  !  " 
Although  I  deeply  regretted  the  loss  of  such  a  treasure, 
it  was  infinitely  amusing  to  hear  him  repeatedly  bewail- 
ing the  opportunity  he  let  sHp  of  turning  his  discovery 
to  better  account. 

The  excavations  upon  the  Great  Mound  fidly  convinced 
me  that  if  any  primitive  buildings  still  remain  perfect  at 
Susa,  they  are  to  be  disentombed  at  this  portion  of  the 
ruins.  With  the  exception,  however,  of  the  inscription 
of  Susra,  several  bricks  in  excellent  preservation,  and  the 
fragmentary  records "''  above  mentioned,  there  was  nothing 
further  found  in  the  trenches,  and  my  funds  failed  before 
I  could  satisfactorily  explore  the  depths  of  the  ruin. 
Notwithstanding  the  assertion  of  my  friend  the  sacristan, 
there  was  no  appearance  of  the  stone  searched  for. 
According  to  his  best  recollection,  it  had  stood  close  to  a 
deep  ravine,  and  there  seems  every  probability  that 
during  the  winters'  rains  it  had  fallen  from  its  position, 
and  been  covered  up  near  the  base  of  the  mound.  He 
had  not  seen  it  for  many  years.  Still,  the  bricks  and 
inscription,  which  I  was  so  fortunate  as  to  uncover,  were 
undoubted  proofs  of  the  remote  antiquity  ascribable  to 
the  great  Susian  citadel. 

We  have  additional  confirmation  on  this  subject  in  the 

*  The  results  of  my  trenches  in  the  great  citadel  have  only  recently 
arrived  in  England,  but  as  the  language  in  which  these  complicated  old 
Scythic  monuments  is  written,  is  still  a  mystery  even  to  the  initiated  in 
cuneiform  decipherment,  we  must,  I  fear,  wait  long  until  its  difficulties 
may  be  unravelled.  There  is  every  probability  that  some  of  the  brick  in- 
scriptions extend  as  far  back  as  the  period  of  the  patriarch  Abraham. 


SCULPTURED  TROUGH. 


415 


very  archaic  sculptures  upon  a  trough  of  yellow  limestone, 
lying  in  the  channel  of  the  Shaour  at  the  foot  of  Daniel's 


Sculptured  Trough  at  Daniel's  Tomb. 

tomb.  Around  the  sides  are  two  animals — doubtful 
whether  dogs  or  lions — apparently  about  to  devour  two 
prisoners  with  their  arms  tied.  As  Sir  E.  Ker  Porter 
gives  an  exceedingly  rough  and  incorrect  sketch  of  these 
animals,  the  annexed  woodcut  from  Mr  Churchill's 
careful  drawing  is  here  inserted.  AVhether  or  not  the 
scene  herein  represented  is  intended  to  commemorate  the 
events  which  befell  the  prophet,  I  leave  to  the,  considera- 
tion  01  m.y  leaders. 


CHAPTEE   XXXI. 

The  "  Black  Stone" — Its  Discovery  and  Adventures — Its  Connexion 
with  the  Welfare  of  Khuzistan — The  Plot  for  its  Removal  Defeated 
— Investigations  among  the  Rivers  of  Susa — Identification  of  the 
"  Ulai,"  or  Eulaeus — Bifurcation  of  Modern  Rivers — Sheikh  Abdulla 
Forgiven — Friendly  Parting  between  the  Arabs  and  the  Frank. 

It  was  upon  the  surface  of  the  Great  JMouncI  that  my 
now  indefatio;ab]e  cicerone  of  the  ruins  discovered  the 
celebrated  "  black  stone,"  the  safe  custody  of  which  is  sup- 
posed to  exercise  such  wonderful  influence  on  the  welfare 
of  the  province.  As  certain  details  connected  with  its 
history  are  not  generally  known,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
narrate  them  in  extenso. 

When  the  present  guardian  of  the  holy  shrine  was  a 
very  little  boy,  he  used  to  accompany  his  father,  who 
preceded  him  in  the  same  capacity,  from  Dizfiil  to 
Shiish.  His  partiality  to  antiquarian  pursuits  soon 
manifested  itself,  and  he  made  a  practice  of  seeking  in 
every  hole  and  corner  of  the  ruins  for  "  picture-stones," 
and,  of  course,  precious  metals.  Engaged  one  day  in  his 
usual  pursuit,  he  accidentally  stumbled  over  the  stone 
projecting  through  the  soil  at  the  top  of  the  roadway, 
where  my  large  excavation  was  made.  The  summit  of 
his  ambition  at  that  time  was,  boylike,  to  move  and  roll 
it  down  the  steep  slope  of  the  mound,  that  he  might  see 
it  crashing  its  way  through  the  thick  undergrowth  of 
brushwood.     Year  after  year,  however,  elapsed  before  his 


THE    "  BLACK  STONE.''  417 

strength  was  sufficient  to  accomplisli  this  great  exploit. 
Down  it  went  at  last,  however,  to  the  intense  delight  of 
the  young  Hercules.  From  its  high  estate,  occupying  as 
it  had  done,  for  so  many  centuries,  the  threshold  of  the 
temple,  or  of  the  king's  own  palace,  overlooking  the 
country  around  from  its  elevated  position,  it  was  sud- 
denly debased  to  the  ignominious  office  of  a  washing 
block  by  the  edge  of  the  Shaour  at  the  foot  of  Daniel's 
tomb.  Here  it  was  seen  in  1809  by  Captain  Monteith 
and  his  companion  Captain  Macdonald  Kinnear,  who 
could  then  have  purchased  it  on  moderate  terms.  Cir- 
cumstances however — not  caused  by  any  popidar  oppo- 
sition— rendered  its  removal  inconvenient  at  that  time, 
however  desirous  these  gentlemen  were  of  possessing  it. 
According  to  the  old  man's  story,  two  other  Firenghis  came 
shortly  afterwards  and  offered  him  one  thousand  four  hun- 
dred kerans  (nearly  seventy  pounds!)  for  this  curious  piece 
of  sculpture.  He  hesitated  ;  whereon  they  said : — "  Well ! 
consider  the  proposal,  and  when  we  return  we  mil  pay 
you  the  money  and  carry  it  away!"  But,  alas!  they 
never  returned !  Poor  Grant  and  Fotheringham  were 
murdered  near  the  foot  of  the  great  mountains  at  the 
instigation  of  the  ruthless  Kelb  'Ali  Khan,  the  Wall  of 
Lilristan,  under  whose  protection  they  travelled  !  These 
offers  on  the  part  of  the  Firenghis  were  soon  magnified, 
and  spread  like  wildfire  among  the  superstitious  Arabs, 
who  now  began  to  set  great  value  upon  it — thinking, 
doubtless,  that  if  a  Frank  conceived  it  worth  his  while  to 
carry  it  away,  it  must  be  valuable  indeed. 

It  is  then  related  that "  when  Sir  Robert  Gordon  visited 
Susa  in  1811,  he  found  the  stone  more  highly  estimated  ; 
and  in  1812  its  reputation  was  so  established  throughout 
the  country  as  a  talisman,  powerful  against  the  plague, 
hostile  invasion,  and  other  evils,  that  a  person,  sent  by 
him   expressly  to  purchase  it,  and  authorized  for  that 


418  ITS  HIGH  ESTIMATION  AND  DESTRUCTION. 

purpose  by  Moliammed  'All  IMIrza,  Prince  of  Kirman- 
sluili,  although  he  had  placed  it  in  a  boat  on  the  river 
Shaour,  was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  prize  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Shiister,  Dizfiil,  and  other  places  adjacent 
to  Susa."'"' 

From  that  time  its  security  was  considered  a  matter 
of  such  vital  importance  to  the  province,  that  the  Arabs 
"  collected  among  themselves  two  thousand  tomdns,  which 
they  presented  with  two  fine  horses  to  the  Prince,  and 
it  was  decreed  by  his  Royal  Highness  that  the  stone 
should  not  be  removed  from  Susa."  But  jealousy  of 
external  influence  could  not  protect  it  from  native 
cupidity.  A  blind  Benl  Lam  Seyid  came  with  two  at- 
tendants to  say  his  prayers  to  Daniel.  During  six  months 
they  hovered  about  the  tomb,  waiting  an  opportunity, 
and  at  length  blew  up  the  stone  with  gunpowder,  in  the 
vain  hope  of  enriching  themselves  with  the  treasure  which 
it  was  supposed  to  contain.  It  became,  of  course,  gra- 
dually reported  that  the  perpetrator  of  this  outrage  was  a 
Firenghi  emissary  in  disguise.  Under  all  circumstances, 
therefore,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  European  visitor 
should  be  regarded  with  great  suspicion  and  abhorrence  ; 
the  more  so  when  it  is  considered  that  immediately  after 
the  above  occurrence,  a  series  of  misfortunes  befell  the 
pro^ance — "  the  plains  were  depopulated  by  the .  plague, 
the  bridge  of  Shiister  suddenly  broke,  and  the  famous 
dam  at  Hawiza  was  carried  away;  all  which  disasters 
were,  of  course,  ascribed  to  the  destruction  of  the  tahs- 
man/'t  Hence  it  was  that  such  a  feeling  of  hostility  and 
suspicion  attended  all  visits  of  Em-opeans  to  Susa. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  fragments  intact,  they  were 
collected  together  and  secretly  built  into  a  pillar  in  the 
veranda  of  the  tomb.     This  wonderful  relic  is  described 

•  "Sir  William  Ouseley's  Travels  in  Various  Countries,"  vol.  i.,  p.  420. 
t  "Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  ix.,  p.  69. 


ITS  DESCRIPTION. 


419 


to  liave  been  twenty- two  inches  long  and  twelve  inches 
broad.  Sheikli  Mohammed  voluntarily  gave  me  an 
account  of  it,  and  his  description  perfectly  agrees  with 
the  sketch  made  by  Captain  Monteith.  He  said  that  on 
one  side  were  figures  of  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  birds,  and 


V:-&:iZj*f'-',f  - 


fe' 


^^^fe^ 


The  "  Black  Stono."  * 


other  objects,  which  he  understood  were  representations 
of  the  gods  (or  rather  sacred  emblems)  whom  the  people 

*  The  above  woodcut  is  a  copy  of  that  published  from  General  Monteith's 
sketch  in  Walpole'a  "  Travels  in  Turkey,  vol.  ii.,  p.  426. 


420  ATTEMPT  TO  GAIN  POSSESSION. 

of  Sliiisli  formerly  -worshipped  ;  and  that  on  another  side 
was  MTitino;,  while  the  remainino;  two  faces  of  the  block 
were  defaced.  The  above  was,  I  believe,  the  import  of 
the  black  stone  ;  but,  as  the  cuneiform  record  had  not 
been  carefully  copied,  it  was  desirable  that  I  should  obtain 
a  cast  from  it,  if  it  were  found  impracticable  to  obtain 
possession  of  the  original. 

As  any  direct  suspicion  of  my  object  would  have  com- 
promised the  prosecution  of  the  general  excavations,  and 
placed  me  in  considerable  personal  jeopardy,  I  took  care 
never  to  visit  the  tomb,  or  to  make  any  inquiry  concern- 
ing the  highly  valued  talisman.  At  length,  however, 
when  my  excavation  funds  were  nearly  exhausted,  it 
became  necessary  to  take  some  steps  in  the  matter. 

The  old  keeper  of  the  tomb  was  my  frequent  visitor, 
but  hitherto  I  had  avoided  all  allusion  to  the  black  stone, 
and  he  had  been  equally  reserved  on  the  subject.  One 
day  as  he  sat  enjoying  bitter  coffee  in  my  tent,  I  abruptly 
opened  negotiations  by  asking  him  to  afford  me  the 
opportunity  of  examining  it ;  but  he  opened  his  eyes  in 
well-feigned  astonishment,  and  denied  all  knowledge  of 
its  whereabouts.  To  his  unaffected  surprise,  however,  I 
precisely  indicated  the  pillar  where  it  lay  concealed,  by 
means  of  information  elicited  from  other  quarters.  Find- 
ing it  useless  to  attempt  farther  deception  on  this  point, 
he  acknowledged  its  existence,  but  resorted  to  various 
subterfuges  to  drive  me  from  my  purpose : — "  Well !  but 
there  is  nothing  upon  it ;  it  is  a  plain  black  stone."  I 
merely  replied, — "There  are  figures  on  one  side  and  writing 
on  the  other." — "  Firenghis  are  wonderful  people  !  You 
come  here,  and,  without  having  ever  seen  this  stone,  not 
only  describe  it  correctly,  but  point  out  the  exact  spot 
wdiere  I  buried  it  years  ago !  By  the  beard  of  Danyel, 
you  know  everything !  You  come,  and  you  dig  up  palaces 
which  our  fathers  never  saw,  and  read  a  language  on  its 


THE  MdTAVELf's  DIFFICULTIES.  421 

great  blocks  of  marble  which  must  have  been  written  by 
the  Gins  !  Surely !  it  is  useless  to  tell  you  lies,  because 
you  know  the  truth !  But,  as  to  this  said  '  Sang-i- 
Gliyawr  (Infidel's  stone !)  :  you  mil  be  able  to  make 
nothing  of  it,  because  it  is  broken  into  pieces,  most  of 
which  are  larger  than  my  hand,  and  many  are  much 
smaller."  I  suggested  that  the  various  pieces  might  be 
fitted  together,  and  if  not,  that  all  I  required  was,  to  make 
paper  casts  of  them,  as  he  had  seen  me  do  with  the 
Artaxerxes  inscription.  Then  came  the  objection, — "  If 
we  take  down  the  pillar,  the  tomb  will  fall, — and  what, 
then,  will  become  of  me  its  guardian  V  He  quite  forgot, 
however,  that  the  same  difiiculty  presented  itself  w^hen  he 
built  the  pieces  into  the  pillar  years  ago.  I  proposed 
that  due  precautions  should  be  taken  for  the  safety  of  the 
tomb,  by  propping  it  up  during  the  short  time  required 
to  complete  my  examination  of  the  relic.  His  conclud- 
ing argument  was  by  far  the  most  potent,  and  here  my 
chief  difiiculty  lay  : — "But  pilgrims  or  workmen  are 
always  here  now.  Every  person  in  Dizful  is  talking  about 
the  big  idols  (the  bulls  of  the  colonnade),  and  in  a  few 
days  all  the  town  will  be  here  to  see  them.  How  is 
it  possible  to  do  what  you  ask  V  I  determined  that 
the  departure  of  the  workmen  should  be  hastened,  and 
suggested  that  the  extrication,  copying,  and  reburial  of 
the  stone  might  be  readily  efiected  some  night  when  no 
person  was  in  the  neighbourhood.  Here  the  subject  for 
the  present  dropped,  and  the  old  man  was  left  to  ponder 
over  the  conversation.  On  his  rising  to  depart,  I  dropped 
a  few  coins  into  his  willing  hand,  with  the  remark  that 
they  were  a  portion  of  the  reward  intended  to  be  bestowed 
for  the  trouble  he  had  experienced  from  so  many  work- 
men residing  in  the  tomb.  His  hand  clutched  instantly 
on  the  glittering  coin,  and  his  look  told  me  that  he  fully 
understood  their  real  meaning. 


422  THE  PLOT  DEFEATED. 

For  nearly  a  week  the  old  man  kept  himself  aloof  froze 
my  camp,  lest  reports  might  arise  injurious  to  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  good  Mussulman.  At  leng-th,  however,  he  inti- 
mated his  willingness  to  enter  into  my  plans,  provided 
a  favourable  opportunity  should  occur  for  that  purpose. 
The  workmen  were  duly  paid  off,  and  there  appeared 
every  prospect  of  our  effecting  the  dark  mysterious  deed. 
All  details  were  arranged,  the  props  ready,  and  the 
hour  fixed  upon,  when,  to  my  utter  vexation,  a  shoal 
of  pilgrims  arrived  from  Dizfiil,  and  seized  posses- 
sion of  the  sanctuary  which  my  workmen  had  but  just 
deserted.  Operations  were  consequently  deferred, — but 
next  day  the  numbers  of  the  devout  increased — and  the 
next — and  the  next — till  it  became  evident  that  the 
annual  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  had  commenced  long 
before  the  usual  period.  The  wonderful  reports  spread 
abroad  concerning  the  excavations  had  raised  public 
expectation  to  such  a  pitch  that  it  could  be  no  longer 
restrained ;  men,  women,  and  children,  bringing  their  tents 
and  property,  and  evidently  contemplating  a  lengthened 
stay,  flocked  to  the  banks  of  the  Shaour. 

The  scene  was  a  busy  one,  as  they  gathered  in  groups 
among  the  columns,  and  discussed  the  questions  how  and 
whence  those  huge  blocks  were  conveyed  to  their  present 
position.  Children  played  along  the  edges  of  the  trenches, 
their  rich  dresses  contrasting  brilliantly  with  the  now 
dying  and  brown  vegetation  of  the  mounds.  However 
interesting  such  a  scene  might  be  at  any  other  time,  it  was 
anything  but  agreeable  at  that  moment.  I  lingered  for 
several  days  upon  the  spot,  but,  the  number  of  Daniel's 
visitors  increasing  instead  of  diminishing,  I  was  at  leng-th 
reluctantly  obliged  to  abandon  my  project.  For  some 
time  I  was  inclined  to  suspect  that  the  old  man  had 
played  me  false,  and  that  he  had  himself  arranged  the 
inopportune  arrival  of  the  pilgrims ;  but  it  was  afterwards 


THE  RIVERS  OF  SUSIANA.  423 

reported  to  me  that  he  had  been  compelled  to  seek  his 
own  safety  by  a  hasty  flight  in  consequence  of  his  sus- 
pected arrangements  with  myself.  What  became  of  him 
afterwards  I  never  learned. 

The  excavations  having  satisfactorily  settled  the 
much-debated  question  as  to  the  identity  of  Shiish  with 
the  Susa  of  the  Greeks,  my  next  efforts  were  directed 
towards  solving  the  problem  with  reference  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  Susian  rivers. 

The  ancient  geographers  make  distinct  mention  of  four 
great  streams — the  Choaspes,  Eulseus,  Koprates,  and 
Pasitigris,  of  which  the  Eulseus  and  Pasitigris  were  in- 
finitely the  most  important.  At  the  present  day  there 
are  four  rivers  flowing  through  the  province  of  Kliuzi- 
st^n — namely,  the  Kerkhah,  Shaour,  the  Dizful  river,  and 
the  Karun.  IModern  writers '""  all  concur  in  identifying 
the  Choaspes  with  the  Kerkhah, — the  Koprates  with  the 
Dizful  river, — and  the  Pasitigris  with  the  lower  part  of 
the  Karun.  Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  regard  the  Shaour 
as  the  ancient  Eulseus  ;  but,  as  it  is  only  a  narrow  stream, 
at  certain  seasons  expended  in  cultivation  before  it  forms 
a  junction  with  the  Dizfill  river,  it  appears,  on  this  evidence 
alone,  higlily  improbable  that  the  Shaour  can  represent  the 
navigable  river  by  which  Alexander  sailed  from  Susa  to 
the  sea ;  t  or  that  which  Ptolemy  mentions,  after  the 
Mosseus,  as  the  chief  river  of  Susiana.  Not  concurring 
in  this  determination,  I  sought  upon  the  spot  itself  for 
a  more  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question,  and  was 
more  fortunate  in  this  research  than  for  the  black  stone 
in  the  tomb  of  Daniel. 

The  difficulty  hitherto  attending  the  subject  arose,  not 
so  much  from  the  ai^ioarcntly  confused  accounts  of  the 

*  Consult  the  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,"  voL  iii.,  p. 
258  ;  ix.,  p.  85;  xii.,  p.  105  ;  and  xvi.,  p.  91. 
t  Arriani  Expeditio  Alcxaudri,  lib.  vii.,  c.  7. 


424  DISCOVERY  OF  AN  OLD  RIVER-BED.  --• 

ancients,  as  from  our  own  imperfect  knowledge  of  tlie 
countries  they  described.  Moreover,  during  the  twenty 
centuries  since  those  histories  were  written,  many  and  vast 
chano-es  have  occurred  in  the  courses  of  the  rivers  them- 

o 

selves,  flowing,  as  they  do,  through  soft  alluvial  soil. 

My  first  inquiries  were  directed  to  Sheikh  Mohammed, 
whose  age  and  constant  migrations  over  the  adjoining 
plains,  seemed  most  likely  to  afford  the  required  infor- 
mation. I  was  not  long  in  ascertaining  that  his  autho- 
rity was  valuable.  He  told  me  that,  many  years  ago,  a 
bifurcation  of  the  Kerkhah  took  place  near  Pai  P\il,  soon 
after  issuing  from  the  mountains ;  that  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  river  flowed  about  tw'o  miles  eastw^ard  of 
the  great  mound  at  Shush  ;  and  that  after  absorbing  the 
Shaour  at  a  point  below  a  ford,  now  called  Umm-et- 
timmen,  it  flowed  to  its  junction  with  the  Kariin  at 
Ahwaz. 

A  few  days  subsequent  to  this  conversation,  during  a 
ride  to  Dizful,  soon  after  passing  the  last  of  the  undu- 
lating low  mounds  w^hich  extend  in  that  direction,  I 
noticed  a  considerable  depression,  and  immediately  pro- 
nounced it  to  be  the  eastern  and  extinct  branch  of  the 
Kerkhah,  to  which  Mohammed  had  alluded.  Its  width 
is  not  less  than  nine  hundred  feet,  and  its  depth,  drifted 
up  with  sand,  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet.  This 
depth  of  channel  below  the  level  of  the  plain  completely 
established  in  my  mind  its  importance  as  the  bed  of  a 
once-navigable  stream  ;  while  the  numerous  remains  of 
irrigating  canals  with  high  embankments,  which  diverge 
from  it  on  either  side,  proved  it  to  have  been  a  main 
artery.  The  Arabs  of  the  locality  call  it  the  "Shat 
dtik,"  or  "  ancient  river."  In  corroboration  of  this  fact, 
a  small  runner  of  water  from  the  Kerkhah  flows  along 
the  course  of  the  old  channel,  and  is  exhausted  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  lands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  ruins. 


ACCOUNTS  OP  THE  GEOGRAPHERS.        425 

It  is  the  last  water-course  crossed  on  the  road  from  Dizful 
to  Susa. 

I  subsequently  crossed  this  old  channel  at  several 
different  points,  and  observed  that  it  everywhere  retained 
the  same  character.     Notliino-  would  have  afforded  me 

o 

greater  pleasure  than  tracing  its  entire  course,  but  other 
duties  claimed  my  attention,  and  obliged  me  unwillingly 
to  quit  the  plains  of  Susa. 

The  existence  of  this  ancient  channel  being  once 
estabhshed,  and  its  identity  with  the  historical  Eulseus 
admitted,  it  is  no  difficult  matter  to  reconcile  all  the 
apparent  discrepances  of  the  early  geographers.  We 
can  fully  understand  how,  in  consequence  of  its  con- 
necting the  Kerkhah  and  the  Karun,  its  name  might  be 
applied  indiscriminately  to  either  of  them,  and  vice  versd, 
by  j)ersons  not  intimately  acquainted  with  the  minute 
features  of  the  comitry. 

Quintus  Curtius  ^''  informs  us  that,  in  his  march  from 
Babylon,  "  Alexander  came  to  the  Choaspes,  and  then 
entered  Susa."     This  is  evidently  the  modern  Kerkbnh, 

Strabo,t  however,  m  describing  the  further  pron:ress 
of  the  conqueror  from  Susa  to  Persepolis,  enumerates  the 
rivers  crossed  in  the  foUowino;  order  : — "  Next  to  the 
Choaspes  is  the  Koprates,  and  the  Pasitigris."  Now,  it 
is  evident  that,  if  he  crossed  the  Choaspes  in  approach- 
ing Susa,  he  could  not  again  cross  it  in  quitting  that 
capital  for  Persia,  unless  it  be  allowed  that  he  crossed 
two  branches  of  the  same  river. 

Ptolemy  J  does  not  allude  to  the  Choaspes,  but  places 
Susa  upon  the  left  branch  of  the  Euloeus,  upwards  of  a 
degree  above  the  point  of  confluence  with  the  right  arm 
of  the  river.  The  latter  part  of  liis  description  is  some- 
what obscure,  but  his  evidence  is  material  towards 
establishing  the  fact  of  there  being  two  branches  of  the 

*  Lib.  ii.  9.  t  Casaub.,  page  729.  +  Lib.  vi.,  c.  iii. 


426  THE  EUL^US  IS  THE  TJLAI. 

Eulseus,  wliicli  cannot  possibly  be  other  tlian  tlie  two 
streams  of  the  Choaspes  mentioned  by  Quintus  Curtius 
and  Strabo. 

Pliny,  '"■  referring  to  Susa,  says  that  "  the  Eulceus  sur- 
rounded the  citadel  of  the  Susians,"  which  miglit  well 
be  the  case  if  a  branch  flowed  on  either  side  of  it,  and 
these  were  connected  by  means  of  canals  or  moats  for 
defence. 

The  most  interesting  explanation,  however,  afforded 
by  the  identity  of  the  Kerkhah  and  the  old  channel 
with  the  two  streams  of  the  Eulaeus,  is  that  of  the  re- 
markable passage  in  the  Book  of  Daniel :  t  "  And  I  saw 
in  a  vision  ;  (and  it  came  to  pass,  when  I  saw,  that  I  was 
at  Shushan  in  the  palace,  which  is  in  the  province  of 
Elam  ;)  and  I  saw  in  a  vision,  and  I  was  by  the  river 
Ulai/'  "And  I  heard  a  man's  voice  hetiveen  the  hanks  of 
Ulai."  As  this  expression  stands,  it  is  perfectly  incom- 
prehensible; but,  if  we  understand  it  to  mean,  hetiveen 
the  two  st7'eams  of  the  Eulceus,  nothing  can  be  more  lucid 
or  intelligible. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  Sabseans  divide  the 
Kerkhah  into  three  parts  (one  of  which,  as  observed 
by  Mr  Layard,|  is  called  "Akhrokh  'Alaitha,"  "the 
Upper  Kerkhah  ") ;  which  division  may  refer  to  the  trunk 
stream  of  the  ancient  Kerkhah,  and  to  its  bifurcating 
branches. 

A  difficult  passage  in  Diodorus  Siculus§  is  likewise 
rendered  clear  by  the  discovery  of  the  Eulseus'  channel : — 
*'  Antigonus  (advancing  from  Susa)  having  passed  part 
of  his  troops  over  the  river  (Koprates),  Eumenes  sud- 
denly crosses  the  Pasitigris,  and  attacks  them.  Anti- 
gonus retreats  to  Badace  on  the  Eulseus,  and  with  diffi- 

*  Lib.  vi.,  c.  27.  +  Cliap.  viii.,  verses  2,  16. 

%  "  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  xvi.,  p.  94. 

§  Lib.  xis,,  c.  17. 


THE  EUL^US  IS  THE  PASITIGEIS.  427 

culty  makes  Lis  way  througli  the  country  of  the  Cossaei 
to  the  inhabited  part  of  Media."  He  did  not  retreat  to 
Susa,  because,  by  so  doing,  it  would  have  been  necessary 
to  cross  the  eastern  Eulseus  twice  in  his  march  into 
Media.  He  therefore  preferred  halting  on  its  eastern 
bank  at  Badace,  by  this  means  escaping  the  risk  of  sur- 
prise while  entangled  "  between  the  banks  of  the  Ulai." 

There  is  no  question  among  geographers  concerning 
the  identity  of  the  Pasitigris  and  Eulaeus,  but  it  was 
never  before  explained  how  the  two  names  were  a];)plied 
to  the  same  river,  as  must  have  been  the  case  from 
Arrian's  passages  :  "  Nearchus  sails  back  past  the  outlet 
of  the  Tigris  to  the  mouth  of  the  Pasitigris,  which  he 
ascends  till  he  comes  to  the  bridge  of  boats  by  which 
Alexander  was  going  to  pass  his  army  over  to  Susia."^^ 
The  Pasitigris  here  is  undoubtedly  the  Karun. 

"  The  navy  of  Alexander  sails  from  the  Persian  Gulf  up 
to  Susia  (by  the  Pasitigris  or  Karun).  Alexander,  who 
was  then  at  Susa,  embarks  and  sails  doivn  the  Eidceus 
(evidently  the  extinct  channel  which  extended  to  the 
Pasitigris)  :  he  then  sails  from  the  mouth  of  the  Eulceus 
(Pasitigris)  along  the  Gulf  coast  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tigris."  t  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  modern  Kanln 
was  the  ancient  Pasitigris.|  As  Susa  is  distant  forty  miles 
from  the  nearest  point  of  the  Karun,  it  is  evident  that 
the  first  mention  of  Eulseus  in  this  passage  does  not  refer 
to  the  Kariin,  because  Alexander  embarked  at  Susa.  It 
is  equally  apparent  that  the  Eulceus,  afterwards  men- 

♦  Arrian,  "  ludica,"  42.  f  Arrian,  "  Exped.  Alex.,"  vii.  7. 

X  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  remarks  on  this  river,  that  it  was  named  by  the 
old  Persians  Dijlahl  K6dak,  or  the  Little  Tigris, — and  this  was  translated 
into  Arabic  by  Dijlah,  Dtijeil.  With  this  indication,  then,  he  had  no  diffi- 
culty in  recognising  in  the  Greek  -naai.  the  old  Persian  word  Pas,  signifying 
"low,"  "inferior,"  and  in  thus  translating  Pasitigris,  like  the  Arabic  Dtijeil, 
"the  inferior  or  httle  Dijlah."  See  "Journal  of  Royal  Asiatic  Society,"  vol. 
ix.,  p.  90.  Other  authors  adopt  the  more  simple  derivation,  Pasitigris,  as  if 
"Persi"  Tigris. 


428 


VIEW  OF  SUSA  ON  AN  ASSYRIAN  BAS-RELIEF. 


tioned,  could  be  no  other  than  the  K^run,  the  same  which 
Nearchus  ascended  to  Siisia  (the  territory  of  Susa),  and 
the  same  which  Ptolemy ^^  mentions,  after  the  Mosaeus,  as 
the  cliief  river  of  Susiana. 

But  a  farther  convincing  proof  that  the  Kerkhah  bifur- 
cated in  ancient  times,  and  that  its  eastern  arm,  connecting 


View  of  Susa  on  a  Sculpture  from  Nineveh. 

it  with  the  Karun,  was  the  Eulseus  of  Susa,  is  found  in 
one  of  Mr  Layard's  sculptures  from  the  palace  of  Senna- 

*  Lib.  vi.,  c.  3. 


VIEW  OF  SUSA  ON  AN  ASSYRIAN  BAS-RELIEF.  429 

cherib  at  Koyunjuk  (Nineveh)."^'  We  have  on  it  a 
representation  of  Siisa  as  it  stood  in  the  days  of  Ashur- 
bani-pal  (to  whom  this  monument  is  due),  and  it  is  the 
more  interesting,  because  we  are  able  to  recognise  upon 
it  a  ftiithfid  pictiu:e  of  the  modern  ruins  seen  from  the 
southern  side ! 

The  large  mound  on  the  left  of  this  sculpture  is  without 
doubt  the  great  mound  or  citadel,  the  smaller  mound 
is  the  palace,  while  the  town,  with  its  walls  and  date- 
trees,  exactly  corresponds  with  the  low  eastern  niins.t 
Nothino;  can  be  more  correct  than  this  identification. 
The  inscription  upon  it  reads  "  district  of  Madaktu  ;"  and 
an  inscription  on  the  adjoining  slab,  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  subject,  states  that  the  Susians  were 
defeated  by  the  Assyrians  near  the  district  of  Madaktu, 
and  near  the  city  of  Shushan. 

In  the  large  river  flowing  from  the  mountains,  and 
laving  the  foot  of  the  citadel,  I  distinguish  the  Choaspes 
or  modem  Kerkhah — the  Shaour  being  then  absorbed  by 
this  or  the  smaller  stream,  and  therefore  not  shewn  on 
the  sculpture.  The  true  Euloeus — the  extinct  river- 
channel  above  described — is  undoubtedly  to  be  identified 
with  the  upper  and  smaller  river.  The  angle  made  by  the 
two  streams,  and  their  direction,  flowing  towards  the  large 
river,  the  Tigris,  at  the  bottom  of  the  slab,  must  be  re- 
garded as  intended  to  represent  a  bifurcation,  and  not 
a  junction.  The  pond  between  the  larger  rivers  is  the 
great  Chaldsean  marsh  at  the  mouth  of  the   Kerkliah.| 

*  No.  60  in  the  Northern  Assyrian  Gallery  at  the  British  Museum. 

t  Compare  this  sculpture  with  the  Plan  of  the  Ruins. 

I  On  first  seeing  this  sculpture,  I  at  once  identified  the  city  thereon  shewn 
with  Susa,  without  being  aware  that  Mr  Layard  had  already  done  so.  I 
was  also  delighted  to  find  the  rivers  represented  as  the  present  configura- 
tion of  the  country  led  me  to  expect  they  should  be,  and  in  every  respect 
agreeing  with  the  views  advanced  by  me  in  a  memoir  "  On  the  Identification 
of  the  River  Eulseus,"  communicated  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 
Mr  Layard's  explanation  of  the  rivers  ("  Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  452)  doea 


430  BIFURCATION  OF  THE  KERKHAH. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  adjoining  slab  on  the  right  is 
destroyed,  because,  I  doubt  not,  we  should  have  there 
seen  the  other  rivers,  and  thus  had  a  skeleton  map  of  the 
ancient  province  of  Susiana. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  theory  above  advanced, 
concerning  the  bifurcation  of  the  Choaspes  and  Euloeus 
from  the  same  stream,  requires  contirmation  and  further 
explanation.  ]\Iy  belief  is,  that  the  Eulseus  was  an  arti- 
ficial channel  for  irrigation  and  defence,  formed  by 
throwing  a  bund,  or  dam,  across  the  main  river,  and  that 
this  barrier  ceased  to  exist  either  from  neglect  or  wanton 
destruction. 

The  artificial  bifurcation  of  rivers  is  by  no  means  an 
unfrequent  occm-rence  in  that  alluvial  region ;  we  need, 
therefore,  have  the  less  hesitation  in  adopting  this  mode 
of  explanation.  Instances  have  already  been  described  in 
the  two  branches  of  the  Euphrates  above  Babylon,'"  and 
of  the  Kariin  at  Shuster.t  The  remarkable  breakao;e  of  a 
modern  dam  on  the  Kerkhah  itself  may  not  be  an  inap- 
propriate subject  here  to  describe. 

Pre\dously  to  1832,  the  Kerkhah  flowed  past  the  large 
and  important  Arab  town  of  Hawiza.  In  order  to  culti- 
vate the  country  on  the  north-east  of  the  place,  a  person, 
called  Hashem,  dug  a  canal  about  fifteen  miles  higher  up 
the  river.  As  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  Pallacopas  of 
Alexander,  the  ground  proved  low,  soft,  and  yielding,  and 
soon  required  a  dam  to  restrain  the  overfloAving  of  the 
Kerkhah  into  the  canal.  During  high  rises  of  the  river, 
this  was  frequently  much  damaged  ;  at  length  one  night 
the  whole  stream  of  the  Kerkhah,  breaking  down  the  bar- 
rier, quitted  its  former  channel,  and  left  Hawiza  entirely 
without  water,  except  such  as  could    oe  obtained   by 

not  agree  with  mine,  but  lie  was  not  then  aware  of  my  having  discovered 
the  extinct  channel. 

*  Page  44  of  this  work.  f  Page  299. 


ABDULLA  FORGIVEN.  431 

digging  wells  in  the  old  bed.  Several  governors  of 
Kliiizistan  have  endeavoured  to  remedy  this  disaster,  but 
so  far,  for  many  reasons,  without  success.  A  new  canal 
was  dug  above  and  o^^posite  to  the  Nahr  Hashem,  and 
was  called  the  Mechriyya ;  it  being  intended  to  divert  the 
course  of  the  river  from  the  channel  of  the  Nahr  Hashem 
into  its  original  bed.  Khanler  Mirza  spent,  it  was  said, 
7000  tomans'^'  in  building  a  bund  or  dam  across  the 
Kerkhah  at  the  new  cut  when  the  river  was  at  its 
lowest  level ;  as  soon  as  the  great  rise  took  place,  the 
water  flowed  into  the  Mechriyya  cutting,  but,  from  some 
cause  unexplained,  rushed  back  again,  utterly  demolishing 
the  bund  and  all  the  works  on  which  the  Prince  had 
expended  so  large  a  siun. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  bifurcation  of  the 
Eulseus  from  the  Kerkhah  was  effected  by  means  of  a 
similar  bund,  and  that  the  desertion  of  its  channel  was 
caused  by  the  breaking  of  this  artificial  barrier  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  the  Nahr  Hashem  in  modern  times. 

The  points  connected  with  the  determination  of  the 
Eulseus  are  of  great  importance  in  enabhng  us  to  com- 
prehend the  comparative  geography  of  the  country  in 
question,  and  it  is  satisfactory,  by  thus  explaining  away 
apparent  discrepances,  to  rescue  the  veracity  of  the 
early  historians  from  unmerited  censure  and  disjDarage- 
ment.t 

A  day  or  two  before  quitting  Susa,  I  received  intimation 
that  the  Prince's  secretary  had  received  a  large  bribe,  and 
was  about  intriguing  to  obtain  pardon  for  Sheildi  Ab- 
dullah from  the  Shah-zada.  Such  being  the  case,  I 
determined  on  being  beforehand  with  the  Vizir.    Sending, 

•  Nearly  £3500  sterling. 

t  Such  of  my  readers  as  may  desire  to  investigate  this  interesting  subject 
more  fully,  will  find  the  above  details  more  minutely  laid  down  in  my  paper 
"On  the  Determination  of  the  River  Eulocus  of  the  Greek  Historians," 
communicated  to  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 


432  IMPROVED  OPINIONS. 

therefore,  for  Sheikh  Ghafi),  I  gave  him  to  understand 
that,  being  about  to  quit  the  country,  it  was  my  desire 
to  do  so  without,  if  possible,  leaving  behind  me  any 
rancorous  feeling  towards  Europeans ;  that  I,  therefore, 
entirely  forgave  Abdullah  ;  and  that,  as  a  proof  of  my 
being  in  earnest,  I  should  likewise  use  my  influence  with 
the  Prince  to  obtain  his  forgiveness.     I  reminded  him  of 

o 

the  dislike  which  the  Arabs  had  long  entertained  towards 
my  countrpnen,  and  that  all  the  return  we  had  received 
for  the  money  spent  in  the  district,  and  for  our  endea- 
vours to  establish  amicable  relations  with  them,  was  a 
determination  to  oj)pose  our  objects. 

He  acknowledged  that  we  had  always  acted  bountifully, 
and  endeavoured  to  do  good; — "But,"  said  he,  "the Arab  is 
an  Arab ;  he  was  born  a  donkey,  and  you  cannot  expect 
that  he  will  die  a  horse  !"  At  the  same  time  he  admitted 
that  the  opinions  of  his  people  had  much  changed  regard- 
ing the  Firenohis  since  our  residence  amono;  them. 
"  They  have  at  least  discovered  that  Firenghis  have  one 
and  the  same  God  as  themselves  ;  that  they  are  just  and 
honoiu'able  in  their  dealings — a  fact  which  they  could  not 
say  for  Arab  or  Persian  ;  you  have  not  dug  up  the  Imam's 
bones,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  observed  that  you  have 
evinced  the  greatest  desire  not  to  injure  a  single  stone, 
out  of  respect  for  the  feelings  of  the  Arabs  \"  Such  was 
the  opinion  pronoimced  by  the  chief  of  the  'All  Kethir 
on  his  intercourse  with  Europeans. 

Although  my  residence  at  Susa  had  been  accompanied 
with  much  opposition  and  annoyance,  yet,  on  the  whole, 
I  had  passed  an  agreeable  three  months  upon  its  mounds, 
which  had  now  become  endeared  to  me  like  old  friends, 
from  whom  I  felt  loath  to  part.  At  length,  however,  the 
day  arrived  when  I  was  destined  to  take  a  final  leave  of 
a  spot  associated  with  many  interesting  recollections. 

Before  quitting  the  plains,  I  spent  a  day  at  the  camp 


PARTING.  433 

of  Sheikh  Mohammed,  who  had  so  frequently  been  my 
resource  in  case  of  need  from  the  date  of  our  first  inter- 
view. At  bidding  him  adieu,  in  return  for  his  trouble 
and  kind  services,  I  placed  on  his  shoulders  a  handsome 
abba,  with  which  he  w^as  as  content  as  though  it  had  been 
a  bao-  of  tomans.  1  had  likewise  intended  to  visit  Sheikh 
Ghaiil,  Init  his  camp  being  out  of  the  way,  and  the  heat 
too  great  for  comfort,  I  contented  myself  with  semling 
him  a  dress  of  honour  by  the  messenger  he  had  deputed 
to  g-uide  me  to  his  encampment.  On  receiving  the  dress 
for  his  chief,  the  messenger  ^Dlaced  it  upon  his  head,  and 
went  through  such  a  series  of  contortions,  inflexions,  genu- 
flexions, and  manoeuvres,  that  it  appeared  as  if  the  honour 
were  too  weighty  for  him  to  bear,  and  that  he  was  likely 
to  sink  under  its  astounding  influence. 

A  great  change  had  indeed  taken  place  in  the  behaviour 
of  the  Arabs.  The  intercoiu-se  established  between  us 
had  had  the  efiect  of  uprooting  many  fixed  prejudices, 
and,  I  trust,  that  future  travellers  vdW  experience  a  more 
courteous  and  hospitable  reception  than  that  which  greeted 
the  Frontier  Commission  on  three  several  occasions.  The 
more  I  saw  of  the  Arabs,  the  more  convinced  was  I  that, 
however  wild  or  bigoted  they  may  be,  they  possess  at 
heart  a  disposition  capable  of  love  and  respect  towards 
the  Firenghi. 


2  E 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE/^ 

FIRST  CHALDiEAN  EMPIRE. 


B.C 

about. 

Karnes  of  Kings. 

Cuneiform  Records,  where  Discovered. 

Bates  of  Correspouding 
Eveuta  in  the  Bible. 

2234 

Urukh. 
Ilgi. 

BtiwSrIyya    '.at     Warka;    Great 
Mound,   Nift'itr;    Do.    Sinkara; 
Mfigcyer. 

Niffar;  Warka;  Sinkara;    Miige- 
yer. 

B.  C. 

Birth  of  Abraham,  2130 

1950 

Shinti-Shil-Khak. 
Kuduv-M.ipula. 
(perhaps  Chedorlaomer.) 

Mugcyer. 

1860 

Ismi-Dagan. 

lbil-Anu-D\ima. 

Gurguna. 

MVigeyer. 
Miigeyer. 
Mtigeyer. 

1700 

Naramsin. 

Purna-Piiriyas. 

Durri-Galzu. 

Sinkara. 
Akkcr-Kiif;  Mugcyer. 

The  Exodus,           1625 

1600 

Khammu-rabi. 

Shamsu-Iluna 
Sin-shada. 

Red  Mound  at  Sinkara ;  Mfigeyer; 
Gherilranear  BaKbdiid;  on  Ta- 
blets from  Tel  Sifr. 

On  Tablets  ft-om  Tel  Sifr. 

Upper  teiTace  of  the  Bftw^rfyya, 
.and  Wuswas  gateway,  at  War- 
ka. 

On  Tablet  from  Miigeyer. 

Abu-Sliehreyn. 

Death  of  Moses,     1585 
First  Servitude,     1558 

1500 

Rim-gin. 

Zur-sin. 

1400 

Merodach-Gina. 

N,  of  the  Buwarfyya  at  Warka. 

1300 

• 

Between  1400  b.c.  and  625  B.C.,  we  know  little  of  the  Clialda3.an  Monai-chy,  but  in  B.C.  1110  a 
Chaldican  King  named  Mcrodacli-.adan-akhi  defeated  the  Assyrians,  and  can-ied  off  their  gods 
as  trophies  to  Babylon.  The  lower  plains  of  the  Tigris  and  Kuplirates  seem  to  have  boon 
gcvonicd  by  independent  kings,  except  at  such  times  as  the  As-syrians  were  able  to  iiold  tln-m 
in  subjection.  In  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  Queen  Sammui-ainit  (Semh-amis),  wife  of  I'hulukh 
III.,  about  760  B.C.,  the  Assyrian  dominion  over  C'h,ald;ea  was  for  a  short  period  established  ; 
and'dtimately  Sennacherib,  in  702  B.C.,  defeatetl  Mcrodach-Baladan,  King  of  Babylon,  and  placed 
his  own  son  £.sarh;iddou  on  the  throne.  In  625  B.C.,  Nineveh  fell  before  the  united  armies  of 
the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  from  which  time  was  established  the 

SECOND  CHALDiEAN  (or  BABYLONIAN)  EMPIRE. 


E.  C. 

about. 

Kumes  of  Kings. 

Cuneiform  Records,  where  Disoovei-eil. 

Vaiea  of  Corresponding 
Events  in  the  Bible. 

62.5 

Nabopollasar. 

On  Tablets  from  Warka. 

605 

Nabo-k\iduri-uzur. 

Babvlon;   Bfrs    Nimriid;    Bitgh- 

B.C. 

(Nebuchadnezzar.) 

diid;    Sinkara;    Cylinders    in 
Exirope. 

Jehoiachin,               599 

562 

Evil-Meroiiach. 

Zedekiah,                  683 

560 

Nergal-shar-ezur. 

Babylon ;    Cylinder  from   Baby- 

554 

(Neriglissur  ) 

lon,  at  Ti-in   Col.,  Cambridge. 

638 

(  Nabonidus 

Miigeyer;  Red  Mound,  Sinkara; 

.j       and 

on  Tablets  from  Warka. 

638 

(  Bel-shar-ezer. 
(Belshazziir.) 
Taking  of  Babylon  by 
Cyrus. 

♦  The  list  of  Chald.-eau  Kings  In  this  Tabic,  Is  borrowed  from  Mr  Vault's  "  Nineveh  and  Peraepolls  "  (4th  edition) 
To  it  are  added  tlie  mom  recent  discoveries,  and  a  list  of  locaHtim  whence  the  Cuuc''orni  Records  of  ilie  various  king 
were  deriveiL 


436 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 


B.C.' 

about. 

Names  of  Kln^ 

Cuueifiiriii  Keo»rds,  where  Diiicovered. 

538 

Cyaxares. 

636 

Cynis. 

Murgii.ll) ;  ou  Tablets  from  Warka. 

525 

Carubvses. 

Sinkara. 

522 

Smerdis  the  Magian. 

521 

Darius  I. 

(Hystaspes.) 

Xerxes  I.  (Ahasuenis 

Pei-sepolis ;  Bisiituu ;  Ilamadan ;  on  Tablets  from  Warka. 

485 

Pei-sepolis ;  Susa ;  Uamadiin ;  Van  ;  on  Tablets  from  Wark 

of  Scripture.) 

Vase  at  Paris. 

472 

Artaxerxes  1. 
(Lonf^manus.) 

425 

Xerxes  11. 

424 

Darius  II. 
(Nothus  ) 

404 

Artaxerxes  II. 
(MneinoH.) 

Susa;  A  aae  at  Vcnicd. 

362 

Artaxerxes  III. 
(Ochus.) 

Persepolis. 

338 

Arses. 

336 

Darius  III. 
(Codomanus.) 

GREEK  EMPIRE  IN  CHALD^A. 


B.  C. 

Names  of  Kings. 

Cuneiform  Itecoids,  where  Discovered. 

330 

Alexander  the  Great. 

311 

Seleuc\is  Nicator. 

280 

Antiochus  Soter. 

On  Tablets  from  Warka. 

261 

Antiochus  Theos. 

246 

Selcucus  Callinicus. 

, 

226 

Selevicus  C'eraunus. 

223 

Antiochus  the  Great 

On  Tablets  from  Warka. 

187 

Seleucus  Philopator. 

175 

Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

164 

Antiochus  Eupator. 
<tc.                   &c. 

No  cuneiform  mscriptions  have  been  discovered  of  later  date  than  Antiochus  the  Great. 


THE  END. 


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